INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November 2025  
Efficacy of Olive Oil and Chilli Pepper Powder in the Control of  
Cowpea Bruchid (Callosobruchus maculatus)  
Bintu Umar Machina  
Department of Biological Sciences, Yobe State University, Damaturu, Nigeria  
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.91100285  
Received: 10 November 2025; Accepted: 20 November 2025; Published: 06 December 2025  
ABSTRACT  
Post-harvest losses caused by the cowpea bruchid (Callosobruchus maculatus) pose a significant threat to food  
security and economic stability in sub-Saharan Africa. This study investigated the insecticidal efficacy of two  
readily available botanicals—olive oil and chilli pepper (Capsicum spp.) powder—as sustainable alternatives  
to synthetic pesticides. A comprehensive laboratory bioassay was conducted, applying varying concentrations  
of each substance to C. maculatus over a 24-hour period under controlled hot season conditions (28-38°C).  
Concurrent phytochemical screening was performed to identify constituent bioactive compounds. Results  
demonstrated a concentration-dependent mortality response for both treatments. Olive oil proved significantly  
more effective (p < 0.05), achieving an overall mean mortality of 79.6% and an LC50 of 14.8%, compared to  
chilli pepper's 66.1% mortality and LC50 of 22.3 mg/ml. Phytochemical analysis revealed a broader spectrum  
of bioactive compounds in olive oil, including steroids and oxalates, which were absent in chilli pepper. The  
superior efficacy of olive oil is attributed to a dual mechanism of physical suffocation and synergistic  
biochemical toxicity. This research conclusively validates both botanicals, particularly olive oil, as highly  
effective, affordable, and eco-friendly biopesticides suitable for integration into stored product IPM strategies  
by smallholder farmers, directly contributing to reduced post-harvest losses and enhanced food security.  
Keywords— Botanical Pesticides, Callosobruchus Maculatus, Post-Harvest Losses, Olive Oil, Chilli Pepper,  
Phytochemical Analysis, Probit Analysis, Integrated Pest Management, Food Security, Sustainable Agriculture.  
INTRODUCTION  
Background of the Study  
Global food security is persistently challenged by post-harvest losses, which account for an estimated 20-40%  
of total agricultural output in developing nations, with grains and pulses being disproportionately affected [1].  
Among the myriad of contributing factors, insect infestation represents a primary causative agent of qualitative  
and quantitative deterioration in stored produce. The cowpea bruchid, Callosobruchus maculatus is a  
cosmopolitan and oligophagous pest of paramount economic importance, specializing in infesting stored  
leguminous seeds, with a pronounced preference for cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) [2]. Cowpea serves as a  
critical source of affordable plant-based protein, vitamins, and minerals for millions of people in sub-Saharan  
Africa, making its protection a matter of nutritional and economic necessity [3]. The insidious nature of C.  
maculatus infestation begins covertly in the field, where gravid females cement eggs onto the surface of  
developing pods. The subsequent larval and pupal stages develop entirely within the seed kernel, protected  
from external interventions, culminating in adult emergence that leaves characteristic circular exit holes,  
rendering the seeds commercially unviable and nutritionally compromised [4].  
Problem Statement  
The conventional paradigm for mitigating storage pests has relied overwhelmingly on the prophylactic and  
therapeutic application of synthetic chemical insecticides, such as phosphine and pyrethroids. However,  
decades of indiscriminate use have engendered a triad of severe consequences: first, the rapid evolution of  
physiological and behavioral resistance in pest populations [5]; second, detrimental effects on non-target  
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organisms and the broader ecosystem [6]; and third, the accrual of harmful residues that pose significant risks  
to human health, including carcinogenicity, endocrine disruption, and neurotoxicity [7]. For resource-  
constrained smallholder farmers, the cost, availability, and requisite knowledge for the safe handling of these  
chemicals present additional, often insurmountable, barriers. This confluence of factors has catalyzed an urgent  
and global search for effective, biodegradable, economically viable, and environmentally benign alternative  
pest management strategies.  
Research Objectives  
The aim of this research was to conduct a comparative evaluation of the insecticidal potency of olive oil and  
chilli pepper powder against C. maculatus in stored cowpea. The specific objectives were:  
1. To determine the contact toxicity and calculate the median lethal concentrations (LC50 and LC90) of  
different concentrations of olive oil and chilli pepper powder against adult C. maculatus.  
2. To perform a qualitative phytochemical analysis of both test botanicals to identify and compare their  
constituent bioactive compounds.  
3. To statistically compare the insecticidal efficacy of olive oil and chilli pepper powder and correlate their  
phytochemical profiles with observed mortality.  
4. To assess and discuss the practical implications of these findings for developing integrated pest  
management (IPM) protocols for small-scale grain storage in Nigeria and similar regions.  
LITERATURE REVIEW  
The Target Pest: Callosobruchus Maculatus  
Callosobrochus maculatus is arguably the most devastating post-harvest pest of cowpea across the tropical and  
subtropical world. Its remarkable reproductive potential, with a generation time of approximately 3-4 weeks  
under optimal conditions, allows for exponential population growth within a single storage season [2]. The  
damage is twofold: direct consumption by larvae leads to substantial weight loss (often exceeding 30-40%),  
while the physical perforation of seeds facilitates the entry of secondary pests and pathogenic microorganisms,  
further accelerating spoilage [8]. Perhaps most critically, infestation destroys the seed's embryo, nullifying its  
germination capacity and thus its value as a subsequent planting material, thereby perpetuating a cycle of  
agricultural vulnerability [4]. The cryptic life history of the insect, residing protected inside the seed for the  
majority of its development, renders it particularly recalcitrant to control via surface-applied insecticides,  
necessitating agents with fumigant, repellent, or oviposition-deterrent properties, or those capable of  
penetrating the seed coat.  
Botanical Pesticides: A Renaissance in Pest Management  
Botanical pesticides, derived from plant materials, represent a return to ancient pest control practices, now  
underpinned by modern scientific validation. Their modes of action are diverse and often synergistic,  
encompassing contact toxicity, antifeedancy, repellency, growth inhibition, chemosterilization, and oviposition  
deterrence [9]. This multi-target mechanism significantly reduces the likelihood of rapid resistance  
development compared to single-mode synthetic chemicals [10]. Plant essential oils and fixed oils, such as  
olive oil, have garnered significant attention. Their activity is frequently attributed to a dual mechanism: a  
physical action, where the oil film blocks the spiracles of insects, causing death by asphyxiation, and a  
biochemical action, mediated by a complex mixture of terpenoids, phenolics, and aliphatic compounds that  
interfere with neurological and physiological processes [11]. Conversely, chilli pepper (Capsicum spp.) derives  
its potent bioactivity primarily from a group of compounds known as capsaicinoids, with capsaicin being the  
most prominent. Capsaicin is a powerful neurotoxin to insects, acting as an irritant and repellent by targeting  
specific sensory neurons [12]. The exploration of such locally available and culturally accepted botanicals  
offers a promising pathway toward sustainable and self-reliant pest management.  
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METHODOLOGY  
Study Location and Duration  
This experimental research was conducted over a four-week period in April 2019 within the controlled  
environment of the Biology Laboratory at Yobe State University, Damaturu, Nigeria. Damaturu is located in  
the semi-arid Sudan Savanna zone, a region where cowpea is a major staple crop and post-harvest losses are a  
significant concern.  
Experimental Insects and Rearing  
A robust culture of Callosobruchus maculatus was initiated from infested cowpea seeds procured from local  
storage facilities in the Damaturu metropolitan area. The insects were identified and confirmed by  
entomologists at the Department of Biological Sciences. The culture was maintained and amplified in wide-  
mouthed glass jars containing uninfested, clean cowpea seeds. The jars were covered with perforated muslin  
cloth to allow for aeration while preventing escape. The insect culture was maintained under ambient  
laboratory conditions for two generations prior to the commencement of bioassays to ensure a stable and  
synchronized population. For bioassays, uniform, unsexed adult weevils aged 1-3 days post-emergence were  
randomly selected to ensure physiological consistency.  
Fig 1: Incubation of Callosobrochus maculatus in fume chamber  
Source and Preparation of Botanical Materials  
Fresh, commercially available olive fruits (Olea europaea) were purchased from a local supermarket. The fruits  
were de-pulped, and the kernels were air-dried and mechanically crushed. The oil was subsequently extracted  
using a Soxhlet apparatus with petroleum ether (60-80°C) as the solvent for 6 hours. The solvent was  
evaporated using a rotary evaporator, and the pure, solvent-free olive oil was stored in an amber glass bottle at  
4°C until use. Concurrently, dry, ripe chilli peppers (Capsicum frutescens) were obtained from the Damaturu  
central market. They were authenticated, sun-dried to a constant weight, and pulverized into a fine powder  
using an electric grinder. The powder was sieved through a 500-micron mesh to ensure particle uniformity and  
stored in an airtight container away from light and moisture.  
Fig 2: Olive  
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
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Fig 3: Chilli  
Fig 4: Extraction of Olive Oil using Soxhlet extractor  
Fig 5: Concentration of Chilli Pepper Powder  
Fig 6: Concentration of Olive Oil  
Bioassay Experimental Design and Procedure  
The contact toxicity bioassay was performed using a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with five  
treatments (concentrations) and a control, each replicated four times (n=4). For olive oil, working  
concentrations of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50% (v/v) were prepared using analytical-grade dimethyl  
sulfoxide (DMSO) as a solvent. For chilli pepper powder, concentrations of 10 mg/ml, 20 mg/ml, 30 mg/ml, 40  
mg/ml, and 50 mg/ml were prepared as suspensions in distilled water. A 1 ml aliquot of each concentration was  
applied uniformly using a micropipette onto 50g of uninfested cowpea seeds harboring fifty (50) adult weevils  
in a 250 ml plastic container. The control setups received 1 ml of the respective carrier (DMSO for olive oil  
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controls, distilled water for chilli pepper controls) without the active botanical. The containers were sealed  
with perforated lids and maintained under ambient laboratory conditions (28-38°C, characteristic of the local  
hot season). Mortality was assessed at 4-hour intervals for 24 hours. Insects were considered dead if they  
showed no movement upon prodding with a fine brush. The cumulative percentage mortality at 24 hours was  
corrected for control mortality using Abbott's formula [13] where necessary.  
Phytochemical Screening  
Qualitative phytochemical analysis of both the extracted olive oil and the chilli pepper powder was conducted  
using standard laboratory procedures as described by [14]. The screening tested for the presence of the  
following secondary metabolites: alkaloids (using Wagner’s test), flavonoids (using the alkaline reagent test),  
tannins (using Ferric Chloride test), saponins (using the frothing test), steroids (using the Salkowski test),  
terpenoids (using the Salkowski test), cardiac glycosides (using Keller-Killani test), anthraquinones (using  
Borntrager’s test), oxalates (using concentrated HCl test), phenols (using Ferric Chloride test), and  
carbohydrates (using Molisch’s test).  
Data Analysis  
The mortality data were subjected to a one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) using SPSS software (Version  
25.0) to determine significant differences (p < 0.05) among treatment concentrations and between the overall  
efficacy of the two botanicals. Where ANOVA indicated significant F-values, treatment means were separated  
using Duncan's Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at a 5% probability level. Concentration-mortality data were  
further subjected to Probit analysis [15] using PoloPlus software to calculate the Lethal Concentrations (LC50  
and LC90) with their respective 95% fiducial limits, slope of the regression line, and Chi-square (χ²) values for  
goodness-of-fit.  
RESULTS  
Dose-Mortality Response and Comparative Efficacy  
The results unequivocally demonstrate that both olive oil and chilli pepper powder possess significant  
insecticidal properties against C. maculatus, with mortality exhibiting a general concentration-dependent trend.  
The data, summarized in Table I, reveal that olive oil consistently induced higher mortality across all tested  
concentrations compared to chilli pepper powder. At the lowest concentration (10%), olive oil achieved a  
remarkable 78.0% mortality, a figure that chilli pepper did not reach even at its highest concentration (50  
mg/ml). The overall mean mortality, calculated across all concentrations and replicates, was 79.6% for olive oil  
and 66.1% for chilli pepper. Statistical analysis confirmed that this difference in efficacy was highly significant  
(p < 0.05), as denoted by the different superscript letters in Table I.  
Table I Cumulative 24-Hour Mortality Of C. Maculatus Exposed To Olive Oil And Chilli Pepper Powder  
(Mean ± Sd, N=4)  
Concentration  
Olive Oil Mortality (%)  
78.0 ± 6.8 a  
Chilli Pepper Mortality (%)  
64.5 ± 9.5 x  
10% / 10 mg/ml  
20% / 20 mg/ml  
30% / 30 mg/ml  
40% / 40 mg/ml  
50% / 50 mg/ml  
Overall Mean  
74.5 ± 7.4 a  
66.0 ± 13.6 x  
80.0 ± 13.6 a  
83.0 ± 8.5 a  
65.5 ± 12.8 x  
68.5 ± 8.3 x  
82.5 ± 10.5 a  
79.6 ± 3.6 a  
66.0 ± 10.4 x  
66.1 ± 1.6 b  
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Means within a column followed by the same lowercase letter (a for Olive Oil; x for Chilli Pepper) are not  
significantly different (p > 0.05, DMRT). Means in the Overall Mean row with different superscript letters (a,  
b) are significantly different (p < 0.05, independent samples t-test).  
Lethal Concentration (LC50) and Potency Analysis  
Probit analysis provided a more precise quantification of the relative potency of the two botanicals. The  
results, presented in Table II, show that the LC50 value for olive oil was 14.8%, with 95% fiducial limits  
ranging from 11.1% to 18.9%. In contrast, the LC50 for chilli pepper powder was substantially higher at 22.3  
mg/ml (fiducial limits: 16.5 - 29.1 mg/ml). This lower LC50 value for olive oil confirms its superior toxicity,  
indicating that it requires a smaller amount to kill 50% of the test population compared to chilli pepper.  
Similarly, the LC90 value for olive oil (49.5%) was lower than that for chilli pepper (79.8 mg/ml), reinforcing  
its greater efficacy. The low, non-significant Chi-square (χ²) values for both analyses (p > 0.05) indicate that  
the mortality data were a good fit for the probit model, validating the reliability of the LC estimates.  
Table II Lethal Concentrations (Lc50 And Lc90) Of Olive Oil And Chilli Pepper Against C. Maculatus After  
24-Hour Exposure  
Treatment  
LC50  
Fiducial  
Limits)  
(95% LC90  
Fiducial  
Limits)  
(95% Slope ± SE  
Chi-square(χ²)  
Olive Oil  
14.8% (11.1 - 49.5% (41.2 - 2.51 ± 0.28  
2.15  
1.98  
18.9)  
67.1)  
Chilli Pepper  
22.3  
mg/ml  
79.8  
mg/ml  
2.38 ± 0.26  
(16.5 - 29.1)  
(62.3 - 115.4)  
Phytochemical Profiling  
The qualitative phytochemical screening, detailed in Table III, revealed distinct and divergent profiles for the  
two test materials. Olive oil tested positive for a wide array of bioactive compounds, including flavonoids,  
tannins, steroids, terpenoids, glycosides, anthraquinones, oxalates, phenols, and carbohydrates. Notably, it  
contained steroids and oxalates. Chilli pepper powder also contained several active compounds, such as  
flavonoids, tannins, terpenoids, glycosides, anthraquinones, phenols, and carbohydrates. However, it lacked  
steroids and oxalates, and similar to olive oil, tested negative for alkaloids and saponins. The broader and more  
complex phytochemical profile of olive oil provides a compelling biochemical rationale for its enhanced  
insecticidal performance.  
Table III Results Of Qualitative Phytochemical Screening Of Olive Oil And Chilli Pepper Powder  
Phytochemical  
Flavonoids  
Alkanoids  
Tannins  
Olive Oil Result  
Chilli Pepper  
+
-
+
-
+
-
+
-
Saponins  
Steriods  
+
-
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Terpenoids  
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
Glycosides  
Anthraquinones  
Oxalates  
Phenols  
+
+
Carbohydrates  
Key: + = Present; - = Absent  
DISCUSSION  
Interpretation of Efficacy and Lethal Concentration Data  
The significantly higher mortality and lower LC50 value for olive oil establish it as a markedly more potent  
insecticide against C. maculatus than chilli pepper powder. The LC50 of 14.8% for olive oil is particularly  
noteworthy; it falls within a practically feasible and economically viable concentration range for small-scale  
application. The high mortality (78.0%) even at the lowest concentration (10%) suggests that effective control  
can be achieved without using the substance at its full strength, enhancing its cost-effectiveness. The steep  
slope of the probit line for both treatments (2.51 for olive oil and 2.38 for chilli pepper) indicates a relatively  
homogeneous response from the test insect population to the toxicants [15]. The findings for olive oil  
corroborate earlier studies on the efficacy of plant oils. For instance, [11] documented that fixed oils act  
primarily by obstructing spiracles and disrupting cellular membranes, leading to rapid death. The performance  
of chilli pepper, while less potent, is consistent with the known bioactivity of capsaicinoids, which act as  
powerful neurotoxins and feeding deterrents, though their primary strength may lie more in repellency than in  
immediate contact kill [12].  
Correlation Between Phytochemistry and Bioactivity  
The disparsity in efficacy can be robustly explained by the divergent phytochemical compositions. The  
superior performance of olive oil is likely not due to a single compound but is the result of synergistic  
interactions among its diverse constituents. While the physical mode of action (suffocation) is significant, the  
presence of steroids, known to exhibit insect growth regulatory and ecdysone-mimicking effects [16], and  
oxalates, which can act as metabolic inhibitors, adds layers of biochemical toxicity. Furthermore, the  
terpenoids and phenols identified are well-established for their neurotoxic, repellent, and antifeedant properties  
[9]. This multi-faceted attack on the insect's physiology makes it difficult for the pest to develop resistance. In  
contrast, chilli pepper's activity is heavily reliant on its capsaicinoid content (which falls under phenols and  
other compound classes), and the absence of key compound groups like steroids narrows its mechanistic scope.  
This research moves beyond merely reporting mortality data by providing a plausible biochemical basis for the  
observed bioactivity, thereby adding significant depth to the findings.  
Practical Implications and Integration into IPM  
The practical ramifications of this study are substantial. For a smallholder farmer in Nigeria, procuring and  
safely applying synthetic fumigants like phosphine is often impractical. In this context, olive oil presents an  
accessible, safe, and effective alternative. A simple treatment involving the mixing of 100-200 ml of olive oil  
with 1 kg ofcowpea seeds (equivalent to a 10-20% v/w application) could drastically reduce initial infestations  
and protect the grain during the critical first months of storage. This approach aligns perfectly with the  
principles of Integrated Pest Management (IPM), which advocates for the use of multiple, complementary  
tactics [10]. Olive oil and chilli pepper can be used as part of a treatment sequence alongside sanitation,  
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solarization, and hermetic storage technologies. Promoting these botanicals can also curb the health hazards  
associated with the misuse of synthetic pesticides, a common problem in rural storage settings [7].  
Limitations and Future Research Trajectories  
Despite the clear findings, this study has limitations that chart a course for future inquiry. First, the bioassay  
assessed only immediate contact toxicity over 24 hours. The long-term residual activity, repellent effects, and  
impact on F1 progeny suppression remain uninvestigated and are critical for understanding the full protective  
value of these treatments. Second, the phytochemical analysis was qualitative. Future work should employ Gas  
Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) to quantitatively identify and characterize the specific active  
compounds, such as the specific steroids and phenolic compounds in olive oil. Third, the effect of these  
treatments on the seed viability (germination percentage) and organoleptic properties of the cowpea needs to  
be evaluated to ensure no adverse effects on quality. Finally, large-scale on-farm trials are necessary to validate  
these laboratory findings under real-world storage conditions.  
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS  
Conclusion  
This research conclusively demonstrates that both olive oil and chilli pepper powder are effective botanical  
insecticides against the cowpea bruchid, Callosobruchus maculatus. However, olive oil exhibits statistically  
and practically superior efficacy, attributable to its complex phytochemical profile that facilitates a dual  
physical and biochemical mode of action. The study successfully bridges empirical bioassay data with  
biochemical explanation, providing a robust scientific foundation for the use of these botanicals. The findings  
offer a immediately applicable, sustainable, and safe solution to a pressing agricultural problem directly  
contributing to the efforts to reduce post-harvest losses and enhance food security in Nigeria and similar agro-  
ecological zones.  
Recommendations  
Based on the compelling evidence generated, the following recommendations are put forward:  
1. Immediate Application: Small-scale farmers are encouraged to adopt olive oil as a primary treatment for  
storing cowpea, using anapplication rate of 10-20% (v/w) for effective short- to medium-term protection.  
2. IPM Promotion: Agricultural extension agencies should integrate the use of these botanicals into their  
IPM advisory services, educating farmers on their preparation and application alongside other non-  
chemical methods. Public Health Advocacy: Health and environmental protection agencies should  
promote these low-risk alternatives to mitigate the dangers of synthetic pesticide misuse in rural  
communities.  
3. Strategic Future Research: Subsequent studies should prioritize:  
1. Isolating the specific bioactive compounds in olive oil responsible for its toxicity.  
2. Conducting long-term storage trials to evaluate residual protection and effects on seed quality.  
3. Developing stable and easy-to-use formulations for wider farmer adoption.  
Declaration  
An assisted tool (DEEPSEEK) was used solely for paraphrasing and editing purposes. All ideas, analyses,  
results, and conclusions presented in this paper are entirely the original work of the author.  
ACKNOWLEDGMENT  
The author acknowledge the technical support provided by the Department of Biological Sciences, Yobe State  
University, Damaturu, Project Supervisor Dr. Umar, Laboratory Technician Baba Isa and all individuals who  
contributed to this research.  
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