This article explores the discourse of nation-building in Malaysia by examining the contributions of three leading

scholars which are Prof. Shamsul Amri Baharuddin, Prof. Abdul Rahman Embong, and Prof. Mansor Mohd

Noor. Shamsul emphasizes the dialectics between two social realities and the concept of nations-of-intent; Abdul

Rahman highlights the role of the nation-state and the middle class in shaping national identity; while Mansor

focuses on the thinning of ethnic boundaries and the emergence of a national ethos through micro-level

interactions. By conducting a comparative analysis, this study argues that nation-building in Malaysia is a

continuous, unfinished project requiring the integration of official discourse, socio-economic structures, and

anthropology, and ethnic relations. In Malaysia, the question of how to forge unity within diversity has been a

pressing challenge since independence in 1957. Unlike state-building, which primarily concerns the construction

of administrative and institutional frameworks, nation-building revolves around the more elusive task of

cultivating a sense of collective belonging, shared identity, and solidarity across ethnic, linguistic, and religious

lines. Malaysia’s plural society, shaped by colonial legacies and post-independence policies, requires constant

negotiation between state-led initiatives and the everyday realities of its citizens. In this context, the intellectual

contributions of Shamsul Amri Baharuddin, Abdul Rahman Embong, and Mansor Mohd Noor are indispensable

to understanding the complexities of Malaysian nation-building. This article expands on their key ideas while

situating them in global theoretical debates and contemporary challenges.

diverse groups through policies of education, language, and economic redistribution. Yet, bottom-up processes

such as everyday practices of negotiation and cultural exchange are equally crucial.

Malaysia reflects this duality. Official policies such as the New Economic Policy (NEP), the Rukun Negara, and

national education curricula have aimed to institutionalize a sense of common identity. Simultaneously, the lived

experiences of Malaysians in schools, workplaces, and communities reveal the ongoing, contested nature of this

project. The interplay between state narratives and everyday practices illustrates the complexity of building a

nation in a plural society.

Shamsul Amri Baharuddin’s framework offers one of the most influential interpretations of identity formation

in Malaysia. He introduced the concept of two social realities which consist the 'authority-defined reality' and

'Islamic Ummah' represent divergent yet overlapping attempts to define national belonging [9]. These competing

narratives illustrate the contested nature of Malaysian identity. Importantly, Shamsul highlights the idea of 'stable

tension,' a state in which ethnic and cultural conflicts persist but are managed and contained through institutions,

negotiation, and political compromise [9]. This notion resonates strongly with Malaysia’s post-independence

history, where moments of crisis, such as the 1969 ethnic riots, gave rise to state interventions like the National

Economic Policy (NEP), which simultaneously addressed economic inequalities while entrenching certain

ethnic-based policies.

Drawing from Shamsul’s seminal argument, Malaysia may be more accurately described as a “state without

nation” [10]. The colonial state apparatus which comprising its legal framework, bureaucratic institutions, and

anti-colonial struggle itself was fragmented along ethnic and ideological lines. As a result, independence did not

resolve questions of national identity; instead, it institutionalized a state framework within which multiple

visions of nationhood continued to compete. Consequently, recurring debates on education, language, religion,

and cultural identity are not merely policy disputes but expressions of Malaysia’s persistent condition as a “state

without nation”. This condition provides fertile ground for the articulation of diverse “nations-of-intent”, each

seeking to define the cultural principle of national identity.

Building on this, Shamsul’s concept of “nations-of-intent” refers to the coexistence of multiple, often competing,

visions of what Malaysia as a nation-state should be [10]. A nation-of-intent encompasses a programmatic idea

of territory, population, language, culture, symbols, and institutions that bind a community together. In Malaysia,

articulated by Lee Kuan Yew in 1963 and later championed by the Democratic Action Party (DAP), demanded

absolute equality irrespective of ethnicity or religion, thus calling for radical constitutional reform, a proposal

strongly resisted by Malay political elites. Third, local experiments in Kelantan and Sabah, where state-level

governments at times articulated alternative versions of nationhood, further exemplify how subnational actors

have sought to redefine aspects of Malaysian identity within their own jurisdictions, albeit with limited success.

rather by one state, several nations. This plurality of nations-of-intent demonstrates that nation-building in

Malaysia is not a linear progression toward a singular national identity, but an ongoing process of negotiation

and contestation. The coexistence of these competing visions highlights both the challenges and the dynamism

of Malaysian nation-building: unity is continuously sought, yet perpetually refracted through divergent

ideological, cultural, and political projects.

economic transformations brought about by state-led modernization. The emergence of a new middle class, a

product of educational expansion and economic development, is identified as a key driver of democratic values,

meritocracy, and social mobility. For Abdul Rahman, the middle class is not only an economic category but also

a political force that can foster inclusive citizenship and strengthen national cohesion. This perspective links

nation-building directly to economic inclusivity and modernization, offering insights into the ways class

formation shapes identity politics.

Abdul Rahman Embong situates nation-building within the broader historical and political project of

constructing the Malaysian nation-state. He emphasizes that this is not a finite achievement but rather a

continuous process that requires the integration of economic development, social cohesion, and political

inclusivity [2]. His works which ranging from Negara-Bangsa: Proses dan Perbahasan (2001) to State-Led

For Abdul Rahman, nation-building in Malaysia must be understood as an ongoing, unfinished project. Unlike

state-building, which focuses on the consolidation of administrative and institutional frameworks, nation-

building involves cultivating solidarity, belonging, and inclusive citizenship across ethnic and religious divides.

In the Malaysian context, this process is deeply shaped by colonial legacies, the negotiated independence of

While ethnic compromise is necessary, the project of nation-building extends to institutional reforms, equitable

economic policies, and the creation of shared political culture. Policies such as the New Economic Policy (NEP)

demonstrate this dual character: while they successfully reduced poverty and expanded access to education, they

also reinforced ethnic categorizations that continue to shape identity politics. As such, nation-building in

Malaysia is marked by ambivalence that show progress in socio-economic terms coupled with persistent

contestations over identity and belonging.

One of Abdul Rahman’s most significant contributions is his focus on the emergence of a new middle class as a

critical agent in nation-building. This middle class, largely produced by state-led modernization, educational

expansion, and economic growth under the NEP, embodies more than an economic category. It represents a

The middle class, by virtue of its diversity and inter-ethnic composition, has the capacity to transcend parochial

identities and advocate for broader notions of Malaysian nationhood.

beyond ethnic categorization toward a citizenship-based identity. This shift does not imply erasing diversity but

ensuring that ethnic difference is no longer the primary axis of political contestation.

In sum, Abdul Rahman presents nation-building as a dialectical process that must balance economic inclusivity

with political reforms. By strengthening the middle class and depoliticising ethnicity, Malaysia can foster a more

inclusive and resilient national identity.

Mansor Mohd Noor approaches nation-building from the perspective of micro-level social interactions. His

research underscores the importance of repeated, everyday encounters in blurring rigid ethnic boundaries [5]. In

Kerencaman Sosial dan Penipisan Batas Etnik, he posits that sustained interactions in schools, universities,

workplaces, and neighborhoods gradually erode rigid ethnic divisions, creating shared spaces of belonging [5].

Mansor introduces the concept of a 'national ethos,' a shared set of values emerging from the collective

experience of living together [5]. He views educational institutions, particularly through the 'Ethnic Relations'

module, as critical sites for shaping interethnic understanding among the younger generation. In later works on

2021, Mansor expands this idea by linking ethnic boundary change to broader questions of stability and cohesion

representation within a consociational model. Later, the introduction of the Malaysian Malaysia slogan by PAP

Abdul Rahman’s emphasis on the middle class also takes on renewed importance in the context of globalization

and economic uncertainty. Once heralded as a stabilizing force, the middle class is now fragmented by widening

5. Mansor, M. N. (2012). Kerencaman sosial dan penipisan batas etnik. Bangi: Institut Kajian Etnik (KITA).

6. Mansor, M. N. (2021). Changing ethnic boundary, social differentiation and the Malaysian nation: Roots

7. Renan, E. (1996). What is a nation? In H. K. Bhabha (Ed.), Nation and narration (pp. 8–22). Routledge.

8. Shamsul, A. B. (1996). Debating about identity in Malaysia: A discourse analysis. Southeast Asian

9. Shamsul, A. B. (2001). A history of an identity, an identity of a history: The idea and practice of

10. Shamsul, A. B. (2015). Politics of language and nation-of-intent in Malaysia. Siri Kertas Kajian Etnik,