INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November2025  
Aspect of Compounding andAffixation in Bassa-Nge  
Olagunju, Tosin Samson, PhD1, Joy Ejih Idakwoji2, Nubaye Victor Sokowoncin  
1,3Department of Linguistics & African Languages Federal University Lokoja, Nigeria  
2Department of language and Communication Studies Kogi State Polytechnic Lokoja, Nigeria  
DOI: https://doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.91100327  
Received: 26 November 2025; Accepted: 02 December 2025; Published: 10 December 2025  
ABSTRACT  
This paper delves into the complex and fascinating realm of word formation in language, with a particular  
emphasis on compounding and affixation in Bassa-Nge. By exploring the intricacies of these morphological  
processes, this research provides a nuanced understanding of how words are formed, modified, and used in  
communication. The study examines the theoretical foundations of compounding and affixation, tracing their  
evolution and development in the Bassa-Nge language. It also investigates the cognitive, social, and cultural  
factors that influence the use of these word formation strategies, highlighting their significance in shaping the  
lexicon and grammar of Bassa-Nge. This paper investigates various aspects of compounding and affixation,  
including types of compounds: phonologically conditioned, endocentric, exocentric, and numerical  
compounds. It also explains the affixation processes present in the language: prefixes, infixes, and suffixes,  
and their effects on word meaning. Although English barely makes use of infixes, Bassa-Nge lends itself to  
this process of affixation. Morphological analysis is carried out to break down words into their constituent  
morphemes to understand their internal structure, meaning, and relationships. Hockett (1954)’s Item and  
Arrangement and Word and Paradigm models are employed in the morphological analysis. This paper  
contributes to a deeper understanding of word formation strategies in language, providing valuable insights for  
linguists, language teachers, and language learners.  
Keywords: compounding, affixation, morphology, Bassa-Nge, word  
INTRODUCTION  
This paper is an explication of the aspect of compounding and affixation as morphological processes in the  
Bassa-Nge language. This is hinged on the fact that morphology is a tenet of linguistics among others like  
phonetics, phonology, semantics, syntax, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, and psycholinguistics. It deals with  
word formation. Also, the most basic concept of morphology is the concept of “word” (Haspelmath and Sims  
2013:15). This is why Olagunju (2021) argued that “Words are the oxygen and carbon dioxide with which  
languages breathe. Without words, no language is complete, and without word formation processes like  
compounding and affixation, words cannot be formed in any language.”  
Morphological processes (word formation processes), also referred to as morphological patterns or  
morphological systems by some linguists such as Haspelmath and Sims (2013:34), are changes that occur in  
words when they are found in certain environments or placed side-by-side with other words or when the  
formation of words is realized.  
This study titled "Aspect of Compounding and Affixation in Bassa-Nge" seeks to bring to light these word  
formation processes in the language. That is, how words in Bassa-Nge are formed through compounding and  
affixation.  
Compounding is the creation of new words by joining two free morphemes. Compounding is important  
because all languages use it. According to Olaoye (2009:9), “A compound is a unit consisting of two or more  
bases.” There is no one formal criterion that can be used for a general definition of compounds in English. We  
have the orthographic criteria and semantic criteria.  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November2025  
Affixation, on the other hand, is when a bound morpheme is added to a base or root word. An affix is a bound  
morpheme, meaning it cannot function as an independent word. The three major types of affixation are  
examined,namely: prefix, infix, and suffix, which are also called affixes.  
Affixation is a process; an affix is the morpheme (the smallest unit of a language that carries meaning – the  
building blocks of words) added to a base or root word to form new words.  
Ferdinand de Saussure, who revamped linguistics in the 19th century and tailored it towards the history of  
languages, proposed that linguistics should focus more on synchronic analysis; that is, describing language as a  
whole at a particular point in time. Through this, linguistics took another route during the Structural  
Linguistics era and influenced the pattern of practice of language teaching methodology in the 20th and 21st  
centuries.  
As an indigene of Bassa-Nge, putting out this study would ensure the language is well documented for future  
use or reference. The Bassa-Nge language exhibits various morphological processes such as reduplication,  
affixation, conversion, and compounding to create new words and modify their meanings. These processes  
play a significant role in the structure and evolution of the language, allowing speakers to express a wide range  
of ideas and concepts.  
In addition, in projecting morphological process operation in the Bassa-Nge language, and conceding that the  
operations of human communication reveal the phenomenon of language universality, we accept that there are  
some regular and natural processes involved in word formation across languages. Some schools of thought and  
many scholars of morphology argue that the actual principles and processes determining the derivation and  
existence of basic linguistic forms vary with languages.  
The Bassa-Nge  
The Bassa-Nge is an ethnic group in Nigeria that traces its history back to 1805. They originally inhabited  
Gbara, which was formerly the capital of the Nupe Kingdom. The Bassa-Nge migrated from their homeland in  
Bida due to a dynastic feud around 1820. They were formerly the largest of the Nupe groups, with a population  
of about 15,000 in 1820 before they dispersed throughout Nigeria. They speak two languages: the Nupe-Tako  
dialect of the Nupe language of the Volta-Niger languages and the Bassa-Nge (or Bassa-Nupe) dialect of the  
Basa language in the Kainji languages (all part of the Niger-Congo and Benue-Congo group of West African  
languages).  
They belong to the Benue-Congo branch of the Niger-Congo family. The Bassa-Nge traditional ruler is called  
Etsu, unlike the Etsu Nupe in Nupe. The language is not similar to that of the Bassa Nkomo, though they live  
in the same geographical area. The Bassa-Nge can be found near the Niger River and the confluence of River  
Benue. They live in Bassa Local Government and the majority reside in Lokoja.  
Professor Nadel, in his book “A Black Byzantium,” argued that "the Nupe Kingdom reached its zenith during  
the reign of Etsu or King Mu’azu (1778–1795) and that after his death in 1795, there was a dynastic struggle  
for the legitimate successor to the throne, and that the claim of Jimada was disputed by his cousin Majiya II."  
This, according to Professor Nadel, led to the split of the kingdom into two parts. He said while Jimada reigned  
in Gbara, the ancient city capital, Majiya II built for himself a new capital in Raba. Nadel further said that it  
was as a result of the inter-tribal war between the forces of Jimada and Majiya II that a group of over 15,000  
people, who now call themselves Bassa-Nge, migrated from Gbara.  
The Bassa (Nge) were simply known and called Bassa, a shortened form of the Nupe sentence "BA BO SA,”  
meaning “here is nice” or “here is beautiful” or “here is suitable.” The question that naturally follows is “for  
what?” and the answer naturally is “for settling down or for living in.” The present Etsu of Bassa-Nge in Bassa  
is Brig. Abu Ali. One among the children of the incumbent Etsu Bassa-Nge, Col. Muhammad Abu Ali, was the  
one who led the 221 Battalion tank to fight against Boko Haram in Borno and died in 2016 together with five  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November2025  
soldiers. The Bassa-Nge people have their traditional ruler at Gboloko, and the traditional ruler title is called  
“Etsu Bassa-Nge.” The present Etsu of Bassa-Nge in Bassa is Rtd. Brig. Abu Ali.  
The Problem  
Bassa Nge is one of the languages of the minority in Kogi State of Nigeria. As a result of this development,  
little or no attention has been paid to studying the language, and this poses a risk of endangerment and possible  
extinction of the language. It is on this premise that this current research takes a step forward by bringing to  
light how compounding and affixation aid word formation in Bassa Nge. The morphology and morphological  
processes involved in Bassa Nge are understudied by the indigenous native speakers of the language and  
linguists.  
As noted by Olagunju (2021), appeals had been made by specialists, educationalists, and linguists such as  
Tinuoye (1991) and Banjo (1995) on the need for more research works in the field of linguistics, especially as  
it concerns indigenous languages in Nigeria for rescue from extinction. The goal of this study is to break new  
grounds on word formation processes, with focus on compounding and affixation in Bassa Nge.  
Aim and Objectives of the Study  
The aim of this study is to explicate the aspects of compounding and affixation in Bassa Nge. Its specific  
objectives are to:  
1. Explore the significance of compounding and affixation in the grammar and vocabulary of Bassa Nge.  
2. Analyze the ways Bassa Nge combines morphemes to form new words.  
3. Examine the process of compounding and affixation in Bassa Nge.  
Theoretical Orientation  
This work presents a critical appraisal of the theory of verbal compounding proposed by Selkirk (1981).  
According to her, verbal compounds are "endocentric adjective or noun compounds whose head adjective or  
noun (respectively) is morphologically complex, having been derived from a verb, and whose non-head  
constituent is interpreted as an argument of the head adjective or noun." Selkirk presents her theory of verbal  
compounding as part of a more general theory of compounding. The latter theory, in turn, is presented to  
illustrate basic assumptions of her still more comprehensive theory of word structure. For Selkirk (1981:248),  
then, the term "verbal compound" "simply designates a group of compounds classified according to the type of  
semantic relation one has between the head word and the non-head word."  
Also, it hinges on compounding and affixation as part of the morphological process of word formation in  
Nigerian languages. The fact that words form the basis of morphology cannot be ignored. This being said, it  
means all spoken languages of the world should have morphology.  
As established, without words there is no morphological process (compounding and affixation), and without  
these morphological processes, there will be no complete words.  
Two models of Hockett’s (1954) three approaches, supported by Atkinson (1982), were employed:  
1. Items and Arrangement (IA): which involves only the assumption that there exist morphs, and these  
morphs are arranged in particular ways in accordance with the tactical rules of the language.  
2. Word and Paradigm: which is couched entirely in terms of word forms. Thus, every language has a  
system of morphemic variations, which is correlated with a parallel system of variation in the  
environment.  
Crystal (1967) built upon Hockett’s concept of Items, emphasizing...This same approach was further expanded  
by David Crystal (2008:314), where he posits:  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November2025  
"Morphological analysis may take various forms. One approach is to make a distributional study of the  
morphemes and morphemic variants occurring in words (the analysis of morph-tactic arrangements), as in  
item- and arrangement models of description. Another approach sets up morphological processes or operations,  
which see the relationships between word forms as one replacement (e.g., replace the /e/ of take with the /ἅ/ of  
took), as in item- and process models."  
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY  
This study employs the descriptive survey research design. Data were elicited from a population of twenty-five  
respondents in Lokoja and Emiworo speech communities through random and purposeful sampling techniques.  
Respondents were selected using demographic variables of sex, age, religion, and level of education. Fifteen  
males and ten females were interviewed. These subjects were divided into two groups: one consisted of those  
who have been exposed to formal English learning and could speak and use Bassa Nge language correctly.  
Group two comprised those who have no formal education but could use the language correctly. Each subject  
was required to speak freely on tape about compounding and affixation and provide numerous examples in the  
language.  
In addition to this, the primary method of data collection was employed to elicit information from available  
previous studies in the language. The elicitation instrument used for the collection of data in this research was  
a face-to-face interview to elicit free conversation from the respondents. The production was recorded on audio  
tape and written down with pen and jotter for the purpose of retention on the part of the researchers. Data are  
descriptively transcribed and translated into English for better understanding.  
Data Presentation and Analysis  
Compounding in Bassa-Nge  
Compounding is a morphological process in which two or more separate words are combined to form a new  
compound word. The meaning of the new word is not entirely predictable based on the components that make  
up the word. Different lexical categories can be combined to form compound words. There are noun-noun  
compounds, adjective-noun compounds, noun-verb compounds, verb-verb compounds, adjective-adjective  
compounds, etc. When the two compounded words are in the same category, the derived compound will be in  
that same category.  
Compounds are particularly interesting linguistic constructions for a number of reasons. First, they constitute  
an anomaly among grammatical constructions because they are “words,” but at the same time exhibit a type of  
“internal syntax.” Compounds, furthermore, represent a contact point between several crucial linguistic and  
non-linguistic notions such as syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationships, syntax and morphology, and  
linguistic knowledge and pragmatic knowledge. As for the relationship between syntax and morphology, it has  
often been observed that compounds are the morphological constructions that are closest to syntactic  
constructions, to the extent that there is no general agreement on which component of the grammar is  
responsible for their formation.  
David Crystal's perspective on compounding views it as a crucial word formation process where two or more  
morphemes (or words) combine to create a new, single word. This process is a common way for languages to  
expand their vocabulary and create words with new or nuanced meanings. However, compounds are divided  
into five types:  
1. Phonologically conditioned  
2. Endocentric  
3. Exocentric  
4. Numerical  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November2025  
Phonologically Conditioned  
This refers to a type of compound word where the combination of two words is influenced by phonetic factors  
such as sound changes or assimilation.  
1. átìn (hair) + ìtì (head) = átìn ìtì – “hair on the head”  
2. ání (song) + íku (war) = ání íku – “war song”  
3. ko (sing) + ání (song) = ko ání – “singing”  
4. ágèdè (banana) + gbọrọn (long) = ágèdè gbọrọn – “plantain”  
5. lệm (orange) + báká (bitter) = lệm báká – “lime orange”  
6. ìyá (year) + woro (new) = ìyáworo – “new year”  
Endocentric Compounds in Bassa-Nge  
This type of compound has a central, dominant element (the “endocenter”) that determines the overall meaning  
and category of the compound. In other words, the endocenter is the head or core of the compound, and the  
other elements are modifiers or attributes that provide additional information. The following examples  
illustrate endocentric compounds:  
1. ìnjìnì (oil) + jùrù (red) = ìnjìnì jùrù – “palm oil”  
2. chígbọ (wood) + ìnọ (fire) = chígbọìnọ – “firewood”  
3. ìgì (child) + ìnzághì (female) = ìgì ìnzághì – “daughter”  
4. ìgì (child) + bágì (male) = ìgì bágì – “son or male”  
5. nugùchí (elder) + bágí (male) = nugùchí bágí – “elder brother”  
6. nugùchí (elder) + ìnzághì (female) = nugùchí ìnzághì – “elder sister”  
7. wogí (younger) + bágí (male) = wogí bágí – “younger brother”  
8. nìmsaá (older person) + bágí (male) = nìmsaá bágí – “old man”  
9. nìmsaá (older person) + ìnzághì (female) = nìmsaá ìnzághì – “old woman”  
10. wogí (younger) + ìnzághì (female) = wogí ìnzághì – “younger sister”  
11. nnọkọ (meat) + chígbọ (wood) = nnọkọ chígbọ – “body”  
12. íku (corpse) + ju (bury) = íkuju – “burial”  
In example (i), ìnjìnì (oil) is the endocenter (the central or dominant element), while jùrù (red) is the modifier  
because it provides additional information about ìnjìnì (oil). In essence, compound words that give additional  
information to the endocenter are modifiers.  
Exocentric Compounds in Bassa-Nge  
According to Olagunju (2021), these compounds do not contain an element that functions as the semantic  
head, which is modified by the non-head element.  
1. tù (send) + ìtù (work) = tùìtù – “send an errand”  
2. bá (come) + gì (eat) = bá gì – “come eat”  
Numerical Compounds in Bassa-Nge  
Based on the study at hand and the data available below, these should be referred to as numerical compounds.  
Having established the definition of compounding as “a morphological process in which two or more separate  
words are combined to form a new compound word,” it is safe to consider the data below as numerical  
compounds because they are about numbers.  
1. kpáko (two hundred) + gubá (two) = kpáko gubá – “four hundred”  
2. kpáko (two hundred) + gutá (three) = kpáko gutá – “six hundred”  
3. kpáko (two hundred) + gunì (four) = kpáko gunì – “eight hundred”  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November2025  
4. kpáko (two hundred) + gutsù (five) = kpáko gutsù – “one thousand”  
Affixation in Bassa-Nge  
Affixation is the process whereby an affix is attached to a base, which may be simple (as in full, the base to  
which -ness is attached to yield fullness), or complex (like meditate, the base to which pre- is attached to yield  
premeditate). Languages that make no use of affixation at all are hard to find. In Vietnamese, where most  
morphs are free, bound morphs with relatively abstract meanings such as ‘not’ or ‘agent’ appear in some  
complex words of Chinese origin (Nguyen, 1987). However, these complex words are structurally just like  
others that are classified as compounds (containing only roots); besides, abstractness of meaning is not  
generally regarded as a sufficient reason by itself to classify a bound morph as an affix. Vietnamese is thus  
arguably a language with no affixation.  
Logically, an affix could be attached after, before, or inside its base. All these possibilities, in fact, occur,  
although not with equal frequency. Other morphological processes have been brought under the umbrella of  
affixation too, as will be illustrated.  
According to McCarthy (2006) in Herman (2015), affixation is the process for a bound morpheme that is  
attached or joined before, after, or within a base. It may involve a simple structure (as in happy, the base to  
which –ness is attached to yield happiness), or a complex structure (as in happy, the base to which un- is  
attached to yield unhappiness). The affixes are classified into prefix, infix, and suffix, but in general, there are  
no infixes in English. The study of affixes belongs to morphology. According to Booij (2005:4), morphology  
is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies word formation. From the definition above, the researchers  
assume that morphology is one of the linguistic fields that studies the word formation process.  
Prefixation in Bassa-Nge  
Prefixation is the process of adding a prefix at the left edge of a base word, thus deriving a prefixed word.  
Prefix “ά”  
1. + shè (lie) = άshè – “No wonder!”  
2. ά + bọ (where) = άbọ – “Dirty person/irritating”  
3. ά + gά (that) = άgά – “Visitor”  
4. ά + bá (sour) = ábá – “Male genital”  
5. ά + chuku (stick) = άchukù – “Bone”  
Prefix “e”  
1. é + ro (think) = ẹro – “Wild mango; also known as ọgbọnọ soup”  
Prefix “ì”  
1. ì + gọ (talk) = ìgọ – “Word”  
2. ì + gì (eat) = ìgì – “Child”  
3. ì + bé (come) = ìbé – “Breast”  
Infixation in Bassa-Nge  
Infixation in Bassa Nge is very productive, unlike in the English language, where it is very unproductive.  
According to Yule (2006:58), “it is an affix that is incorporated inside another word.” Although in English, an  
infix can be created by inserting words in between other words, it seldom makes sense. However, in Bassa  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November2025  
Nge, when an infix is incorporated, it makes absolute sense. Interfixation can be found in numbers in Bassa  
Nge and sometimes in other words.  
1. guwo (ten) + bé (plus) + ìnì (one) = guwo bé ìnì – “eleven”  
2. guwo (ten) + bé (plus) + gubá (two) = guwo bé gubá – “twelve”  
3. wogí (fifteen) + dì (minus) + ìnì (one) = wogí dì ìnì – “fourteen”  
4. wogí (fifteen) + bè (plus) + ìnì (one) = wogí bè ìnì – “sixteen”  
5. wogí (fifteen) + bè (plus) + gubá (two) = wogí bè gubá – “seventeen”  
6. guwo (ten) + bè (plus) + gutá (three) = guwo bè gutá – “thirteen”  
7. éshí (twenty) + dì (minus) + gubá (two) = éshí dì gubá – “eighteen”  
8. éshí (twenty) + dì (minus) + ìnì (one) = éshí dì ìnì – “nineteen”  
9. éshítá (sixty) + bè (plus) + guwo (ten) = éshítá bè guwo – “seventy”  
10. ébo (appreciation) + gá (that) + bo = ébo gá bo – “however”  
In the above examples, ‘dì’ (minus) in examples (iii, vii, and viii) translates directly to English from Bassa  
Nge. For example, wogí dì ìnì (“fourteen”) means “fifteen minus one,” and εshí dì gubá (“eighteen”) means  
“twenty minus two.”  
Suffixation in Bassa-Nge  
Suffixation is a process of adding an affix to the end of other morphemes to form a word. According to Willey  
(2006, p.103), a suffix is a group of letters added to the end of the base word. It frequently signifies the part of  
speech and sometimes adds meaning. Redwoods (2007, p.11) states that a suffix is a word ending. It is a group  
of letters you can add to the end of a root word. A root word stands on its own as a word, but you can make  
new words from it by adding endings. In conclusion, a suffix is something added to the end of a word or base  
word to make a new word. Adding suffixes to words can change or add to their meaning, but most importantly,  
they show how a word will be used in a sentence and what part of speech the word belongs to.  
Examples below depict how suffixation works in Bassa Nge:  
1. άfί (time) + nὶ (lick) = άfίnὶ – “leaf”  
2. άrί (since) + lo (continuous marker) = άrὶ lo – “forever”  
3. bά (count) + gὶ (eat) = bάgὶ – “male”  
4. agọ (hand) + lo (use) = agọ lo – “right”  
5. agọ (hand) + pì = agọ pì – “left”  
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS  
This study investigates Compounding and Affixation in Bassa Nge, which are part of the morphological  
processes of language. Compounding allows language to create new words that convey specific meanings,  
often with unique connotations. Affixation, on the other hand, is a productive process in many languages,  
enabling speakers to create new words and convey nuanced meanings.  
Based on the data available to the study and the analysis so far, the following are the major findings:  
1. Bassa Nge lends itself to compounding (combining two or more stems to form new words) and affixation  
(attaching affixes to stems to modify meaning), among other morphological processes.  
2. The language results in loan translation or calque rather than having a specific or equivalent word for  
certain concepts. For instance, in examples (19) of Human Needs and Fruits: Plantain – ágèdè gbọrọn. In  
example 19, ágèdè means “banana,” while gbọrọn means “long.” It results in a descriptive nature (calque)  
of the fruit (figuratively, “long banana”) rather than a direct translation.  
3. This study proves that compounding and affixation are very effective in the language for word formation.  
For example, the suffix pì is added to the root or base word (agọ – hand) to derive a word for “left” – [agọ  
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November2025  
4. Compounding and affixation are fundamental processes in word formation that enable languages to create  
words. Understanding these processes provides valuable insights into the structure and evolution of  
languages, with practical implications for language teaching, linguistic research, and natural language  
processing.  
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