INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)

ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November 2025

Page 4284

www.rsisinternational.org

Exploring Siblings Perceptions of Parental Parenting Styles and

Family Functioning in the Context of Autism Spectrum Disorder

(ASD) with Intellectual Ability (IA)

Noor Syarafana Mohd Razi

, Muhammad Ajib Abd Razak

, Nasrudin Subhi

, Salina Nen

, Chong

Sheau Tsuey

, Mohd Haikal Anuar Adnan

, Najwa Afiqa Roshaizad

1234567

Center for Research in Psychology and Human Well-Being, Faculty of Social Sciences and

Humanities, The National University of Malaysia, Malaysia.

*Corresponding Author

DOI: https://doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.91100333

Received: 27 November 2025; Accepted: 04 December 2025; Published: 10 December 2025

ABSTRACT

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a lifelong neurodevelopmental condition that profoundly shapes the

experiences of individuals and their families. While research has extensively documented parental stress and

wellbeing, siblings’ perspectives, particularly of those with autistic members with intellectual ability (IA),

remain underexplored. Siblings often serve as both observers and direct participants in parenting dynamics and

family functioning. This study therefore aims to explore siblings’ perceptions of parenting styles and family

functioning in households with ASD and IA. A qualitative design with a phenomenological approach was

employed to capture participants’ lived experiences from their own perspectives. Data were analyzed

thematically, enabling the identification of recurring patterns and variations across narratives. Findings reveal

that siblings’ experiences reflect both challenges and resilience. Key themes include difficulties in daily routines,

the centrality of emotional support, the dominant caregiving role of mothers, and communication as the

foundation of family functioning. Variations emerged, such as limited paternal involvement and sibling

relationships ranging from close to neutral. A novel finding highlights that parenting styles and family

functioning directly shape the development of autistic individuals, particularly in self-care, autonomy, and

behavioral regulation. This study contributes to family psychology and special education by foregrounding

siblings’ perspectives, often overlooked in previous research. It expands understanding of how parenting

practices exert systemic effects on the entire family and underscores the importance of integrated support

strategies that recognize parents, autistic individuals, and siblings as interdependent members of the family

system.

Keywords: Autism, Intellectual Ability, Siblings, Parenting Styles, Family Functioning, Phenomenology,

Thematic Analysis

1. INTRODUCTION

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a lifelong neurodevelopmental condition characterised by difficulties in

communication and social interaction, accompanied by repetitive behaviours and restricted interests, which in

turn shape how individuals experience and interact with their environment (American Psychiatric Association,

2013; Joon, Kumar, & Parle, 2021). Within families, living with an individual with ASD demands patience,

tolerance, unconditional acceptance, resilience, and holistic well-being. Some parents or individuals with ASD

may choose to conceal the diagnosis rather than disclose the reality of the condition (Lawson, 2020; Lee et al.,

2023; Low et al., 2024). Such concealment may restrict access to supports that are essential for developmental

growth, particularly when compared with neurotypical peers.

Although some autistic individuals demonstrate average or above-average cognitive abilities, often referred to

as high-functioning ASD (HFASD) or previously Asperger’s syndrome, these strengths do not exempt them

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)

ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November 2025

Page 4285

www.rsisinternational.org

from the core challenges of autism, such as social reciprocity, flexibility, and adaptive functioning (Alvares et

al., 2020; Loison, 2024). Despite their capacity to access mainstream education, pursue higher studies, and

achieve independence, many report a lower quality of life and ongoing difficulties in emotional regulation and

executive functioning (Ayres et al., 2018; Mason et al., 2018; Chien et al., 2023). Consequently, parents

frequently experience elevated stress, emotional exhaustion, and disruption in personal and professional life,

often exacerbated by societal stigma and negative judgements about their parenting (Bohadana, Morrissey, &

Paynter, 2019; Salleh et al., 2022).

Parenting style plays a central role in shaping child behaviour and family outcomes. Positive parenting has been

linked to reduced behavioural and emotional difficulties, whereas negative or inconsistent approaches are

associated with externalising problems (Pinquart, 2017; Lin et al., 2023). Within families of children with ASD,

siblings are particularly affected by parental practices and the differential attention given to autistic versus non-

autistic children. While many siblings report empathy, adaptability, and growth, others experience feelings of

neglect, jealousy, or burden due to caregiving responsibilities (Cridland et al., 2016; Pavlopoulou & Dimitriou,

2019; Salleh et al., 2022).

Taken together, the presence of an autistic child—particularly one with intellectual ability—shapes the entire

family system, influencing parental stress, sibling dynamics, and overall family functioning. Yet, the

perspectives of siblings remain underexplored despite their critical role in family adjustment. Their experiences

provide valuable insights into how parenting practices and family functioning interact, highlighting the need for

research that situates siblings as central informants in understanding family dynamics in ASD.

This study aims to explore the perceptions of siblings of autistic individuals with intellectual ability regarding

parental styles and family functioning. While previous research has largely emphasized parental stress and

wellbeing, siblings’ perspectives remain limited. By adopting a qualitative approach, this study seeks to capture

how siblings evaluate parenting practices and family functioning, thereby offering a more comprehensive

understanding of family life in the context of ASD.

METHODOLOGY

Research Design

This study employed a qualitative research design with a phenomenological approach. Phenomenology was

selected as it emphasises understanding participants’ lived experiences in depth, from their own perspectives

(Neubauer, Witkop & Varpio, 2019; Rietmeijer & Veen, 2022). Through this approach, the researcher was able

to explore the meanings, interpretations and subjective experiences that participants associated with the

phenomenon under investigation (Rietmeijer & Veen, 2022). This design was considered appropriate as the

research questions focused on exploring experiences that could not be quantified. Instead, these understandings

required elaboration through participants’ narratives and reflections. Hence, a phenomenological design was

deemed suitable to provide a comprehensive and holistic account of the phenomenon.

Participants

Four participants were recruited as the main respondents. Participants were selected using a snowball sampling

strategy, beginning with referrals from the researcher’s close contacts and subsequently extending to

acquaintances or relatives of the first participant. This method was considered suitable for identifying

participants with specific characteristics who would be difficult to reach using probability sampling. Recruitment

ceased once data saturation was achieved, that is, when subsequent interviews no longer generated significant

new themes or perspectives.

Participation in the study was voluntary. Participants were informed of their right to decline or withdraw at any

point without providing a reason, and without any negative consequences. Written informed consent was

obtained prior to each interview, including explicit permission for audio recording. All information shared was

treated confidentially and used solely for the purposes of this study.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)

ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November 2025

Page 4286

www.rsisinternational.org

Inclusion criteria ensured that participants were representative of the study focus. Eligible participants had to:

(a) be siblings of individuals diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) with intellectual ability, (b) be

aged eighteen years or older, (c) have an autistic sibling who was currently attending or had attended school and

was aged thirteen years or older, (d) come from a family with at least three children, and (e) have both parents

in employment.

Exclusion criteria specified that individuals with ASD themselves and parents were not eligible, as the research

focused on the experiences and perspectives of siblings. Additionally, siblings who were married or had been

living away from the family home for more than twelve months were excluded, as their perspectives were less

likely to reflect daily family interactions.

To provide an overview of the participants’ backgrounds, brief demographic information was compiled (Table

3.1). Information about the autistic siblings in the family is presented in Table 3.2.

These tables highlight the diversity in participants’ backgrounds and the characteristics of their autistic siblings,

which enabled a more comprehensive understanding of siblings’ experiences in different family contexts

Table 2.1: Demographic information of participant

Participant Code

Age

Gender

Employment Status

Number of Siblings

Female

Student

Female

Employed

Female

Employed

Female

Employed

Table 2.2: Information on autistic siblings in the family

Related participant

Gender

Age

Additional diagnosis (if any)

Male

Schizophrenia

Male

Female

Male

Dyslexia

These tables highlight the diversity in participants’ backgrounds and the characteristics of their autistic siblings,

which enabled a more comprehensive understanding of siblings’ experiences in different family contexts.

Data Collection

Semi-structured interviews were the primary data collection method, as they allowed in-depth exploration of

participants’ experiences and perspectives while maintaining alignment with the study objectives. This approach

balanced structure and flexibility, enabling follow-up questions and the exploration of emergent issues, while

also allowing participants to share their views more openly compared to structured interviews.

Participants were given the choice of being interviewed in Malay (Bahasa Melayu) or English, depending on

their comfort level. To ensure clarity, the researcher used straightforward, non-technical language when posing

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)

ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November 2025

Page 4287

www.rsisinternational.org

questions. Attention was also paid to both verbal and non-verbal communication, such as tone, pauses, facial

expressions and body movements, which often added meaning to participants’ responses.

The interview protocol was developed in line with the study objectives and comprised three main domains: (i)

lived experiences of having a sibling with ASD, (ii) perceptions of parenting styles, and (iii) family functioning.

This ensured coverage of key areas while leaving space for participants to elaborate freely.

All interviews were conducted by the researcher to maintain consistency and credibility. Field notes were taken

during sessions to record observations that might not be captured through audio recordings. The interviews were

transcribed verbatim and cross-checked with field notes and recordings to ensure accuracy. Transcripts were

read repeatedly to achieve familiarity with the content, and review continued until data saturation was reached.

Procedures

Recruitment began with the creation of a digital poster using Canva. The poster included key information about

the study’s objectives, inclusion and exclusion criteria, and a link to a Google Form. To maximise outreach, the

poster was distributed through multiple channels, including the Facebook pages of the Malaysia High Function

Autism Association (MAHFAA) and Disleksia dan Autisme Malaysia (DDAM), the researcher’s WhatsApp

status, and personal networks.

Interested participants completed the Google Form, which included demographic details. Eligible participants

were then contacted directly via WhatsApp. At this stage, the researcher explained the study purpose and

procedures and sought to build rapport through informal text messages or brief calls. Participants were then

provided with a digital informed consent form and interviews were scheduled at mutually convenient times.

Interviews were conducted individually, either face-to-face or online via Google Meet. One participant opted for

a face-to-face interview, one participated via video call, and two via audio call only. These options provided

flexibility for participants, with video calls offering the advantage of observing non-verbal cues, while audio

calls accommodated those with constraints.

Each interview lasted between forty and sixty minutes, was audio-recorded with consent, and took place in a

comfortable and supportive environment. Sessions began with general demographic questions to ease

participants into the process, followed by the main questions. The researcher employed techniques such as

strategic pauses to encourage elaboration. If participants showed signs of emotional distress, the option to pause

or terminate the session was offered.

Transcriptions were assisted by Turboscribe software and subsequently refined manually by the researcher

through repeated checks against field notes and recordings, ensuring accuracy and completeness prior to analysis.

Data Analysis

Data were analysed using thematic analysis, a widely used qualitative method that enables the identification,

analysis and interpretation of patterns or themes (Elliott, 2018; Liebenberg, Jamal & Ikeda, 2020). Specifically,

Braun and Clarke’s (2021, 2023) reflexive thematic analysis approach was adopted, which highlights

interpretative engagement and iterative theme development, while allowing for flexibility and inductive

exploration of siblings’ experiences.

The analysis proceeded systematically through several stages: (i) preparing transcripts and becoming familiar

with the data, (ii) identifying key terms, (iii) developing codes, (iv) forming themes, and (v) conceptual

interpretation leading to a final thematic framework (Naeem et al., 2023). Coding was conducted manually to

preserve the richness of the data. Initial stages involved recognising basic concepts, followed by connecting

categories, refining them, and constructing overarching themes and subthemes. Both explicit meanings and

underlying implications in participants’ accounts were considered to ensure depth and comprehensiveness

(Braun & Clarke, 2021).

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)

ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November 2025

Page 4288

www.rsisinternational.org

To ensure validity and reliability, reflexivity was maintained throughout. The researcher engaged in repeated

transcript reading, cross-checking with field notes and recordings, and critically re-evaluating interpretations. A

thematic summary table was also constructed to demonstrate data saturation. This process produced a systematic,

comprehensive and trustworthy thematic framework for understanding siblings’ perspectives.

Pilot Study

Prior to the main study, a pilot study was conducted with two participants. The aim was to assess the clarity,

comprehensibility and relevance of questions in the semi-structured interview guide. These trial interviews

helped to determine whether the question sequence was clear and whether the guide successfully elicited in-

depth accounts without confusion. Feedback was reviewed critically to refine the structure, wording and delivery

of questions. Adjustments were made accordingly, resulting in a more user-friendly and robust final interview

guide (Table 2.3).

Table 2.3: Demographic information of participant

Domain

Sample Questions

Opening

(Demographic)

a. Could you tell me a little about your background?

b. Could you share some details about your autistic sibling?

c. Are you directly involved in their care?

Experience

a. What is your daily routine with your autistic sibling?

b. Could you describe specific experiences you have had with them?

c. Do you receive support from parents or other family members?

Parenting Style

a. From your perspective, how do your parents raise, educate and care for your

autistic sibling?

b. What do you think of their approach?

c. Do you personally approach your sibling differently from your parents?

d. In your view, does your parents’ style affect how your sibling is managed or

cared for?

Family Functioning

a. How would you describe overall family relationships?

b. How does communication usually take place in your family?

c. Are there regular family activities or shared times together?

d. How do family members carry out their roles?

e. In your opinion, is your family functioning well?

Closing

a. As a sibling in a family with autism, what are your hopes for the future?

b. What is the most valuable thing you have learnt?

c. If you could give advice to others in a similar situation, what would you say?

RESULT

Lived Experiences

Participants described diverse day-to-day experiences as siblings of individuals with ASD with IA. Daily

routines varied considerably, with some families reporting no fixed schedule due to parents’ work commitments

and the siblings’ own educational or occupational demands. As one respondent noted, “There isn’t really a

routine because both parents are working, I’m also working, and my younger siblings are studying, so there isn’t

much of a set routine” (R1). Others highlighted differences between school days and weekends, where weekdays

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)

ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November 2025

Page 4289

www.rsisinternational.org

were structured around early wake-up times and school attendance, while weekends were more relaxed unless

specific activities, such as robotics classes, were scheduled (R2, R4).

Alongside these routines, participants emphasised that their experiences were not limited to challenges but also

included moments of enjoyment and gratitude. One sibling expressed appreciation for their brother’s emotional

support, recalling, “He told me, ‘stop crying, what’s the point of crying?’… even though he didn’t fully

understand why I was sad, he tried to comfort me. It was cute” (R2). Another valued their sister’s independence,

stating, “She can be left alone, she understands that I need to work” (R3). Collectively, these accounts illustrate

the interplay of ordinary routines, challenges, and positive interactions that shape siblings’ everyday lives

Perceptions of Parenting Styles

Participants described noticeable shifts in parenting approaches across generations and over time. Grandparents

were often portrayed as providing “old school” care, focusing on basic needs without much attention to personal

care. As one sibling explained, “From my grandparents’ point of view, even though my brother is special, they

still treat him like a normal person… a really old school style” (R1). By contrast, parents were said to emphasise

routines and hygiene: “…with parents, it’s more like okay, now he knows how to use soap, deodorant, shampoo,

everything” (R1). Over time, parental involvement reduced as children developed independence: “Now my mum

doesn’t really teach him much anymore, because he already knows how to do everything” (R2). When caregiving

shifted to siblings, the approach became more pragmatic and firm due to competing responsibilities. As one

participant put it, “…I can’t do what my parents did because I live alone and I have to work. If I give in to her

behaviour, I’ll be the one to suffer” (R3).

Perceptions of fairness also varied. Some siblings reported that parenting was largely equal across children: “Just

the usual… making sure there’s enough food, clothing, so the same” (R1). Others felt their sibling with ASD

received more guidance and closer supervision: “For me, my mother just let me be… but with my younger

brother she really guided him closely” (R2). In certain cases, fathers were seen as more indulgent, “Yeah, he is

special… my dad really pampered him. There’s no difference when it comes to punishment, he also got punished,

but my dad still spoiled him” (R3). Another sibling reflected that rules seemed looser for the autistic child:

“Same, but maybe there’s slight favouritism… in terms of punishment it’s really loose” (R4). These mixed

experiences suggest that while equality was valued, siblings interpreted variations in discipline, support, and

indulgence as shaping their sense of justice within the family.

Participants also held differing views on the suitability of these approaches. Some felt equal treatment was

inappropriate, as children with ASD required additional attention: “…for a normal person we can think, but my

brother is a special case who needs grooming, monitoring, extra attention” (R1). Another sibling agreed: “Even

when he was older, they still used the same parenting style as for the others… that’s slightly wrong because

obviously an ASD child needs something different” (R4). Conversely, one respondent viewed their mother’s

approach as logical: “…for me, what my mother did was reasonable” (R2). Others argued that effectiveness

depended on the caregiver’s authority: “When others look after her, she misbehaves. With me, one stare and she

stops. She’s scared of me” (R3).

Some siblings suggested alternatives to the strategies they had observed. These included responding to repetitive

behaviours as a form of attentiveness—“As for me I will try to pick his phone up… if I’m not busy” (R1)—or

being firm in order to discourage dependency: “I teach him a lesson. To get something is difficult… if we give

in, he’ll become more demanding” (R3). Others felt unable to comment due to limited involvement in direct

caregiving (R4). Taken together, these accounts highlight how siblings interpret, negotiate, and adapt parenting

styles in families raising children with ASD, balancing equality, practicality, and the need for specialised

attention.

Perceptions of Family Functioning

Participants expressed mixed perceptions of how their families functioned in the context of raising a child with

ASD and intellectual disability. For some, relationships were described as close and supportive. One sibling

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)

ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November 2025

Page 4290

www.rsisinternational.org

highlighted the strong bond between their mother and autistic brother: “They really can’t be separated… he’s

very attached to her” (R2), while another emphasised sibling cooperation, “…among siblings we are close,

because we take over caring responsibilities if one is busy” (R3). In contrast, others characterised relationships

as more neutral or distant, marked by basic communication but limited emotional warmth: “…overall okay, still

good, still communicate, still meet up, just not as close as families who always stay together” (R1)

Communication was generally perceived as functional, though serving different purposes depending on context.

For some, it involved sharing daily updates: “It’s more like sharing, asking what he’s been doing” (R1). For

others, it was highly practical, focused on coordinating caregiving: “…when I say I have work outside, whoever

is free will take over” (R3). Several participants stressed flexibility, either through in-person discussions or

digital messaging (R4).

Family togetherness was often linked to routine activities such as eating, cooking, or shopping: “Usually,

eating… then window shopping, going to the mall” (R1); “…at home my mum and I will ask him what he wants

to eat, then we cook together” (R2). In some cases, bonding centred on larger gatherings: “…when we go back

to the village, we have a family day, talking and hanging out” (R3). These accounts illustrate how everyday

practices and occasional family events shaped experiences of connection.

The distribution of roles within the family was also central. Fathers were described as minimally involved—

“…the father most of the time absent physically and mentally” (R4)—while mothers were seen as carrying the

bulk of responsibility: “…my mum taught him to read… her role is really like the head of the family” (R2).

Siblings frequently stepped in to share the load: “If my brother is unwell… I take leave to look after him” (R2).

These patterns underscored mothers’ pivotal role, with siblings providing supplementary support, and fathers

often perceived as peripheral.

Views on overall family functioning were divided. Some felt their families managed well despite challenges:

“Without my father, yes [we function well]” (R2). Others described systemic strain arising from misaligned roles

and emotional burnout: “…one of the most significant contributing factors is repetitive burnout, particularly

from the autistic child’s behaviour… it burns out most people in the family tree” (R4).

At the same time, participants identified protective factors that helped maintain cohesion, such as willingness to

contribute—“the willingness from each other to build the strong relationship and the family” (R1)—and shared

meals, “…my mum loves to cook, that brings us closer” (R2). Communication, whether face-to-face or through

family chat groups, was consistently highlighted as a resource for sustaining connection (R3, R4).

Effects on Individuals with ASD and IA

Siblings identified both positive and negative outcomes for individuals with ASD and intellectual disability,

largely shaped by the style and consistency of caregiving.

Positive effects were reported when parents took a more structured role, emphasising hygiene, education, and

independence. One participant explained that compared to their grandparents, parental involvement led to

progress in personal care: “…with parents, it’s more like okay, now he knows how to use soap, deodorant,

shampoo” (R1). Another observed the influence of maternal guidance, noting simply, “He is better. Much better”

(R2). Education was also seen as transformative, enabling greater autonomy: “…going to school taught her to

cook, be independent, and understand things better” (R3). Beyond formal learning, discipline and consistency

were described as beneficial, with one sibling remarking, “…I had to be firm… when she sees me, she behaves…

over time she accepted it” (R3). Together, these accounts highlight how structured parenting, educational

opportunities, and clear boundaries were viewed as strengthening self-care, independence, and behavioural

regulation.

Negative effects, however, were linked to inconsistent caregiving or overreliance on parental involvement. One

sibling reflected on a period when their brother’s hygiene was neglected: “…there was one period when he had

body odour… people would say, you smell really bad” (R1). Another highlighted the consequences of reduced

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)

ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November 2025

Page 4291

www.rsisinternational.org

parental engagement over time: “…before, in high school, there was involvement… now it has lessened, and

that contributed to his decline” (R4). Feelings of neglect and lack of affection were also cited: “…technically he

just lacked love, that’s why he developed more problems as he grew” (R4). Moreover, parental practices of doing

tasks for rather than with the child were criticised for reinforcing dependence: “My mum would redo what he

had done… that reinforces incompetence instead of showing him how to do it properly” (R4). In some cases,

problematic behaviours extended into social interactions, prompting siblings to limit contact: “…sometimes on

WhatsApp he’d be texting random things… so at some point I blocked him” (R4). These narratives illustrate

how inconsistent guidance, emotional detachment, and overprotective practices could hinder growth and strain

relationships.

DISCUSSION

Overall, the experiences of siblings in families with a member diagnosed ASD with IA demonstrate a complex

spectrum. These range from daily routines that are sometimes structured and sometimes flexible, to challenging

situations involving aggressive behaviours, excessive dependency, and emotional conflict. Such challenges are

balanced by enjoyable moments that foster gratitude and strengthen family bonds. Emotional consequences such

as anger, trauma, shame, and feelings of isolation were evident; yet, they also prompted the development of

coping strategies including problem-solving and withdrawal. Social support emerged as a critical differentiating

factor: the presence of extended family support reduced stress, whereas its absence intensified feelings of

isolation. Thus, siblings’ experiences reflect not only the challenges of ASD itself but also broader family

dynamics, emotional resilience, and the availability of social resources, all of which collectively shape siblings’

wellbeing and long-term identity.

Although not all respondents provided recommendations due to differing levels of involvement in daily

caregiving, the suggestions that were shared revealed an awareness of the need for flexible and responsive

parenting. The effectiveness of a parenting style was found to depend not only on the principles or strategies

applied, but also on its capacity to preserve family harmony, support the autonomy of the individual with ASD,

and avoid perceptions of unfairness among other siblings. The findings indicate that experiences, parenting

styles, and family functioning are closely interconnected, with changes in one dimension exerting direct effects

on the others. Collectively, the results highlight that parenting in ASD–IA families is adaptive, shaped by time,

context, caregiving roles, and the unique needs of the individual with ASD.

Family functioning in households with individuals with ASD and IA revealed diverse patterns, ranging from

neutral relationships to close-knit bonds. These variations were influenced by factors such as roles,

communication, shared time, and the degree of involvement of each family member. Despite challenges—

including role imbalances between parents, disproportionate burdens on mothers, and recurrent risks of

burnout—findings also pointed to protective factors such as effective communication, sibling support, and

shared routines. Accordingly, family functioning in the context of ASD and IA is best understood as dynamic,

contingent on the family’s adaptive capacity and collective resilience, rather than determined solely by the

presence of ASD.

This newly identified theme highlights the family as a central determinant of developmental outcomes for

individuals with ASD and IA. Positive outcomes were observed when families provided consistent

environments, supported formal education, and encouraged independence through appropriate discipline.

Conversely, negative effects were linked to overly permissive practices, excessive indulgence, or a lack of

nurturing engagement. The implication of these findings is the importance of balancing support with

opportunities for responsibility, in order to enable individuals with ASD and IA to reach their full potential.

Thus, family functioning and parenting styles not only affect family wellbeing but also shape the developmental

trajectory of individuals with ASD and IA in cognitive, emotional, and social domains

CONCLUSION

This study set out to explore siblings’ perceptions of parenting styles and family functioning in households with

a member diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and intellectual ability (IA). The findings reveal

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)

ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November 2025

Page 4292

www.rsisinternational.org

that siblings’ experiences are multifaceted, encompassing both challenges and resilience. Difficulties such as

demanding daily routines, emotional conflict, and unequal caregiving roles were balanced by protective factors

including supportive communication, shared routines, and emotional bonds.

The study also underscores the adaptive nature of parenting in families of individuals with ASD and IA.

Parenting styles were found to exert systemic effects on the whole family, influencing not only siblings’

wellbeing but also the developmental trajectory of the individual with ASD in terms of autonomy, behavioural

regulation, and social participation. Importantly, the results highlight that family functioning is not determined

solely by the presence of ASD, but rather by the family’s collective capacity for adjustment, communication,

and resilience.

The contribution of this study lies in foregrounding the perspectives of siblings, a group often overlooked in

existing research. By doing so, it enriches understanding within family psychology and special education, and

points to the importance of integrated support strategies that consider parents, siblings, and individuals with ASD

as interdependent members of a single family system.

REFERENCES

1. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and

Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Fifth Edition. In Arlington.

2. Ayres, M., Parr, J. R., Rodgers, J., Mason, D., Avery, L., & Flynn, D. (2018). A systematic review of

quality of life of adults on the autism spectrum. In Autism (Vol. 22, Issue 7).

https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361317714988

3. Bohadana, G., Morrissey, S., & Paynter, J. (2019). Self-compassion: A Novel Predictor of Stress and

Quality of Life in Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Autism and

Developmental Disorders, 49(10), 4039–4052. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-019-04121-x

4. Chien, Y. L., Liu, C. C., Chiu, Y. N., & Lin, C. C. (2023). Assessing emotional characteristics in Asian

autistic adults without intellectual disability. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 82.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2023.103472

5. Cridland, E. K., Jones, S. C., Stoyles, G., Caputi, P., & Magee, C. A. (2016). Families living with autism

spectrum disorder: Roles and responsibilities of adolescent sisters. Focus on Autism and Other

Developmental Disabilities, 31(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/1088357615583466

6. Joon, P., Kumar, A., & Parle, M. (2021). What is autism? In Pharmacological Reports (Vol. 73, Issue

5). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43440-021-00244-0

7. Lawson, W. B. (2020). Adaptive morphing and coping with social threat in Autism: An autistic

perspective. Journal of Intellectual Disability - Diagnosis and Treatment, 8(3).

https://doi.org/10.6000/2292-2598.2020.08.03.29

8. Lee, J. Y. S., Whittingham, K., Olson, R., & Mitchell, A. E. (2023). “Their Happiness, Not Neurotypical

Success”: Autistic Adults Reflect on the Parenting of Autistic Children. Journal of Autism and

Developmental Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-023-06188-z

9. Lin, X., Su, X., Huang, S., Liu, Z., Yu, H., Wang, X., Lin, L., Cao, M., Li, X., & Jing, J. (2023).

Association between maternal parenting styles and behavioral problems in children with ASD:

Moderating effect of maternal autistic traits. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 14.

https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1107719

10. Loison, A. (2024). Literature Review on High-functioning Autistic Employees. DBS Applied Research

and Theory Journal, 1. https://doi.org/10.22375/dbs.v1i1.120

11. Low, H. M., Zainal, M. S., Pang, J. C., Ang, Y., & de Vries, M. (2024). Self-reported autistic traits and

psychosocial outcomes among university students in Malaysia. Autism, 28(1), 174–186.

https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613231167501

12. Mason, D., McConachie, H., Garland, D., Petrou, A., Rodgers, J., & Parr, J. R. (2018). Predictors of

quality of life for autistic adults. Autism Research, 11(8). https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.1965

13. Pavlopoulou, G., & Dimitriou, D. (2019). ‘I don’t live with autism; I live with my sister’. Sisters’

accounts on growing up with their preverbal autistic siblings. Research in Developmental Disabilities,

88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2019.01.013

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)

ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November 2025

Page 4293

www.rsisinternational.org

14. Pinquart, M. (2017). Associations of parenting dimensions and styles with externalizing problems of

children and adolescents: An updated meta-analysis. Developmental Psychology, 53(5).

https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000295

15. Salleh, N. S., Tang, L. Y., Jayanath, S., & Abdullah, K. L. (2022). An Explorative Study of Affiliate

Stigma, Resilience, and Quality of Life Among Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

(ASD). Journal of Multidisciplinary Healthcare, 15, 2053–2066.

https://doi.org/10.2147/JMDH.S376869