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Investigation of Prevalence and Causes of Substance Use among

Medical and Business Students at a Selected University in Zambia

Mulenga Chikalipa, Yasmin Sultana-Muchindu

School of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Lusaka, Zambia

DOI: https://doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.91100415

Received: 16 November 2025; Accepted: 22 November 2025; Published: 13 December 2025

ABSTRACT

Substance abuse among university students is a growing concern globally, impacting academic performance and

overall well-being. This study aims to investigate the prevalence and factors contributing to substance use among

Medical and Business students at a selected University in Zambia. Previous studies highlight the significant

influence of peer pressure, stress, and curiosity on students' substance use. Additionally, research conducted in

Nigeria and Zambia underscores the negative outcomes associated with substance abuse, including social

disturbances, poor academic performance, and health issues. By understanding these factors, appropriate

interventions can be developed to promote healthy learning environments and student well-being. The main

objective of the research study will be to investigate the prevalence and causes of substance use among medical

and business students at the selected university in Zambia. The study investigates substance use prevalence and

causes among Medical and Business students at the selected university in Zambia. Employing a qualitative

approach, data will be collected using structured interviews and cross-sectional surveys. A sample of 288 students

will be selected using stratified random sampling. Data analysis will involve descriptive statistics and frequency

tables, conducted using SPSS software. Ethical considerations include obtaining informed consent, ensuring

confidentiality, and adhering to institutional guidelines. The study surveyed 288 students at the the selected

university in Zambia, revealing a high prevalence of substance use among Medical and Business students. 86.8%

reported using substances such as caffeine (41.3%) and over-the-counter medications (24.3%) to enhance

cognitive function. Academic pressure (60.4%) and peer pressure (29.2%) were the main reasons cited for

substance use. Most students (70.1%) believed substance use had a negative impact on academic performance.

The specific goals of this study, which were to identify the types, prevalence, and causes of substance use among

the student’s pursuing business and medicine, were successfully met. The results show that 86.8% of participants

reported using drugs, a statistic largely driven by peer pressure (29.2%) and academic pressure (60.4%). The

most often used substances were over-the-counter medications (24.3%) and caffeine (41.3%), indicating a

preference for easily accessible and lawful options for improving cognitive function.

Keywords: Substance abuse; University; Medical; Business; Students; Prevalence; Academic Pressure

INTRODUCTION

The pursuit of academic excellence has become increasingly competitive in recent years and students are using

various methods to attain academic excellence. Substance abuse among students has become an alarming situation

that’s becoming normalized. Psychoactive substance use can be defined as illegal and legal use of substances that

are consumed to alter an individuals smell, feel, taste and behavior as well as how they see things (Ministry of

health 2021). Students are abusing various substances to help prolong their study time and concentration while

tending to their academics while other students tend to do it during their leisure time for experimental purposes

and due to peer pressure to try and fit in with their friends. Prolonged study time refers to an extension of time

spent on academic work with a goal of trying to cover a proportion of work. Many factors have led to this behavior,

and this research aim is to discuss the prevalence and factors leading to this challenge as well as the negative

effects it has on business and medical students at the selected university, narrowing down solutions that can be

put in place to promote healthy learning among students at the selected university.

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Researchers have attempted to evaluate the impact of substance use among scholars, However some studies were

done on undergraduate students at the university of Uyo in Nigeria on factors leading to the excessive use of self-

prescription drugs and its prevalence and the findings were as follows , substance use was more common in

females scoring a percentage of 37.7% as compared to males who scored 18.2%. Therefore, some factors that

were found that highly led to this behavior included peer pressure from friend groups 94.3%, stress 70.5% ,

curiosity 58.7%, the most frequent reasons to why scholars resorted to this behavior included increasing their

confidence 92.1% and preparing for exams 85% (Johnson et Al., (2017).

Similarly, another study was done in Zambia on the outcomes of alcohol abuse and drug abuse among students

in Zambian universities and it was found that a larger portion of males abused alcohol, while 20% confessed to

abusing marijuana and diazepam and female also confessed to abusing alcohol, snuff, spirits and lagers. Students

accommodated within school premises had a higher result compared to those living outside school and this could

have been due to challenges with monitoring those living outside as well as the high number of students within

the school premises. Some of the outcomes that were discovered included social disturbance, students who were

under the influence of drugs would make noise, vomiting alcohol on fellow students or innocent students’ rooms,

engaging in fights, others included incidences of theft, stealing of phones, laptops within school premises to gain

fast money to buy drugs. When caught by the University authorities, these students were expelled when found

with these drugs and a vast number of students grades were affected because they absconded classes that led them

to perform poorly in the studies and fail exams. Students who abused these drugs mentioned to have experienced

various medical challenges like liver disease , mental challenges , malnutrition, chronic lip burns , most students

admitted saying most friends that abused alcohol looked older than there age , their eyes are always puffy thus

narrowing down to the outcomes that were taken down .( J Tembo et AL.,2022).This proves that substance use

has terrible effects on most university students even in Zambia.

To date several studies have been investigated and a study was done by ( N Mwanza, Mwale (2023) on students

perspectives on drugs at a university in Zambia and during this study they discovered the most frequently used

drugs were weed, codeine commonly obtained from Benylin and alcohol such as Bols, this shows that scholars

easily access these drugs such as Benylin even without prescription from the nearest pharmacies around schools

and proper documented regulations have to be put in place .Other commonly used drugs included shisha. This

study further concluded saying psychoactive substance use also increases the prevalence of STIs, unwanted

pregnancies, abortions and HIV among youths.

The use of illicit drugs among scholars as been influenced by various factors and has been widely discussed for

several years with a couple of studies commonly noting down the extensive use of alcohol and tobacco (Welsh,

Shentu and Sarvey, 2019; Aguocha and Nwefoh, 2021; Blows and Isaacs, 2022) Currently the focus has changed

students are now abusing these drugs to enhance the level of concentration and prolong study hours.

Pharmacological cognitive enhancement has been noted in many countries and schools (Schelle et Al.,2014:

Signh,Bard and Jackson, 2014; Maier, Ferris and Winstock , 2018; Covaco,Ribeiro and Norgaard,2022). A study

was done among scholars in the United States on the prevalence and commonly used drugs; However, the

percentage ranged from 5% to 35% amid students in the United States. Weyandt et Al.,2013. Another study was

done in Portugal, and it reviewed that 32% of students took these prescription drugs to enhance their cognitive

performance (Cavaco, Ribeiro and Norgaard, 2022). Furthermore, discovering the substance potential risk and

effects associated with its misuse is of prime importance especially its effects on academic outcomes (Bugbee et

Al ;2019; Welsh, Shent and Sarvey,2019) and simply type your text into it.

Problem Statement

The use of substances among students stems from a wide range of factors which may include academic

performance, high levels of stress, family concerns and most times experimental.

Researchers have attempted to evaluate factors leading to this problem and a study was done by Rukundo et.al.,

(2017) on factors influencing psychoactive substance use among adolescents in secondary schools in Uganda

and participants shared saying peer group influence within school played a huge role , while others mentioned

saying taking these drugs helps them manage stressors, furthermore most pupils from the school blamed their

parents and society responsible for them resorting to substance abuse, most of them mentioned saying they inherit

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this behaviour from their parents and relatives because as they grow up it seemed to be normal in their household,

others said to use marijuana to gain confidence. However, in comparison with the cited study above an

exploratory study was done by Gasa et al.,2022) where students stated that peer pressure was one of the factors

that led o substance use and, in a way, students used this as a way to bond with their friends and fit in with their

social groups in fear of losing friendships. However, most students stated they resort to substance use for

enjoyment purposes and not only out of negativity it’s a way in which the students tend to have fun.

Scholars explore many ways that help them cope with their stressors, thus leading to the consumption of different

substances, other factors that precipitate the use include lack of support and family involvement. In relation to

substance use various studies have been done in different parts of the world concerning it being used widely by

students, but they have not been any done at the selected university pinpointing how students are abusing various

substances which come in many forms such as energy drinks containing caffeine, Benylin, weed and others. This

research is bent on investigating the unknown prevalence and causes of substance use among medical and

business students at the selected university. it will explore its effects on academic performance as well as students’

health, however with the collected data specific solutions will be made thus encouraging healthy learning.

Objectives of the Study

The study was guided by the following specific objectives:

1. Determining the prevalence of substance use among Medical and Business students at the selected

university.

2. Identifying the types of substances commonly used among Medical and Business students at the selected

university.

3. Assessing the causes of substance use among Medical and Business students at the selected university.

Research Questions

1. What is the prevalence of substance use among Business and Medical students at the selected university?

2. Which substances are most commonly used by Medical and Business students at the selected university?

3. What are the causes for substance use among Medical and Business students at the selected university?

Significance of the Study

This research aimed at discovering the prevalence and causes of substance use among Medical and Business

students at the selected university, Zambia, this information has helped come up with solutions specific to the

problems leading to this behaviour. However, most of the solutions have included helping students develop

healthy learning practices, through documentation of strict rules pertaining the use of harmful substances within

the school premises. Drawing down compulsory activities and programs among students in collaboration with

the school that will come up with solutions to help students cope with the challenges that make them resort to

substance abuse. However the research also aimed at making students aware of dangerous health complications

that arise from taking psychoactive substance. The findings of this study has helped form the development of

targeted interventions and policies to promote healthy learning environments and support Medical and Business

students in achieving their academic goals without resorting to potentially harm full substances.

Scope of the Study

The research was based on prevalence and causes of psychoactive substance use among Business and Medical

students at the selected university in Zambia. It included factors that are led to an increment in the use of illicit

drugs, there effects on students’ physical and mental health. It also highlighted the commonly used substances

among a random sample of students either Medical or Business students the many withdrawal effects that an

individual tends to illicit as well as its outcomes. The research focused on Business and Medical students at the

selected university in Zambia, categorical and continuous numerical variables have been utilized examples

include the age , income, sex, year of study will be noted down.

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LITERATURE REVIEW 
A considerable amount of literature has been done on substance use among scholars, a study was done by (D 
Oztas et al.,(2018) where he had discovered that the consumption of harmful substances had increased worldwide 
and the average age of substance abusers had decreased to 11years in the USA  , drug abuse is of public health 
concern and serves as a threat to society , families, environment and the world at large. In the USA substance use 
among adolescents had highly increased. However, in this study adolescents were the main group at risk. In his 
study he found that theirs a correlation between the age, gender and substance use, males had a higher rate of 
substance use at 4.8% while females students scored 2.2% and it was commonly practiced among students who 
were 15  years of  age and above concluding that  males older  than 15  are at high risk of drug use. Another 
correlation included adolescents with separated parents and those with whom their parents are still together, and 
the results indicated that children with separated parents are at high risk of substance abuse. 
Several studies done have investigated that the prevalence of the use of substances for cognitive enhancement 
among  university  students,  with  rates  varying  depending  on  the  specific  substances  examined  and  the 
methodological approaches employed. For instance, a systematic review found  the prevalence of prescribed 
stimulant misuse for enhancement of cognitive function ranged from 5% to 35% among college students in the 
United States (Weyandt et al., 2013). Similarly, a study conducted in Portugal reported that 32% of university 
students had used prescription drugs, illicit substances, or dietary supplements for PCE purposes (Cavaco, Ribeiro 
and Nørgaard, 2022). However, there is a lack of research focusing on the selected university and its unique 
context, highlighting the need for the current study. 
Several factors have been identified as contributing to substance use for cognitive enhancement among university 
students. These include academic pressure, mental health issues, and peer influence (Arria and DuPont, 2010). 
An example is, a study that  found students that reported higher levels of anxiety and so much stress  had a  more 
likely hood of  engaging in nonmedical use of prescription stimulants (Butler et al., 2021). Additionally, research 
has shown that students who perceive a high prevalence of substance use among their peers are more likely to 
engage in this behavior themselves (Steyl and Phillips, 2011; Welsh, Shentu and Sarvey, 2019). 
The effects of substance use for cognitive enhancement on students' well-being and academic performance have 
been mixed. Some studies have reported positive associations between PCE and academic outcomes (Husain and 
Mehta, 2011; Sharif et al., 2021), while others have highlighted the potential risks and adverse effects associated 
with the misuse of prescription medications and other substances (Bugbee et al., 2019; Welsh, Shentu and Sarvey, 
2019). For example, a study by Arria and DuPont (2010) found that students who engaged in nonmedical use of 
prescription stimulants were more likely to experience negative academic outcomes, such as lower grade point 
averages and increased risk of dropping out. 
Regional perspective 
To begin with, a research was done in Abu Dhabi  on factors increasing the rate of psychoactive substance use in 
adolescents and the many factors that led to substance use were poor parent and child  interaction , boredom and 
influence from social groups easy accessibility to substance , however they had highlighted that religion played 
a huge role as a shield against exposure to these harmful substances L Alhyas et Al.,(2015). In addition to the 
evidence that has been provided in order to help students it would be great idea to introduce various religious 
programs at the selected university that would help shield many students against drug abuse and would help 
create a healthy routine for students who are normally idol. 
Studies in Sub Saharan Africa were conducted by Stacey Blows, and it was discovered that drug use prevalence 
percentage was 62.7% and the most abused alcohol being 80.6%, cannabis being 46% and ecstasy being 5.3%. 
Students who were abusing these substances had a higher depression and anxiety score. The study concluded that 
a large number of selected students started using these substances after they entered university, thus serving as a 
baseline for interdisciplinary approach Stacey Blows et Al., (2022) 
Similarly study was done in Nairobi Kenya and the results in line with the demographic characteristics showed 
that among the 1566 students that took part in the research a number of scholars who used substances were 

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between 20 to 24years and in this case surprisingly female students scored higher than male students .Therefore

substance dependency was also assessed and a few students disclosed that they couldn’t do without included

heroin 33.3% and cocaine 23.0% and most students showed dependency to marijuana as compared to alcohol

which was the commonly abused substance L Kageni et al.,(2022)

National perspective

In Zambia studies have shown that the prevalence of substance use among males was of greater proportion

compared to females, commonly in single men who scored a percentage of 70.9% and the married had 13.9%

respectively According to their education levels 52.5% had completed secondary school and 31.3% had

completed university G Lungu et Al.,(2023).

Similarly, J Menon., (2018) discovered that a large number of youths in Zambia consumed alcohol among them

were university students, tobacco was found to be commonly used by first year students while alcohol frequently

used by fourth year students. However, the study concluded saying students at the University of Zambia

frequently consume alcohol and Tobacco and it is important that the institution comes up with regulatory

measures to curb drug abuse as it widely affects one’s development and the country’s development at large.

Another study was done by K Peltzer, (2009) on substance use frequency and its common correlates among

adolescents’ students and it was found that sleeping issues, sadness, suicide plans and poverty made students

abuse drugs to try and escape reality.

Studies have been conducted by Isaac Masiye at several secondary schools in Zambia; however it was noted that

the area of learning into which more focus is given has not included ways in which students can utilize to cope

with their stressors instead more concentration has been put on the normative way of learning. On the basis of

prevention of substance use among learners, the study discovered that they were no documented rules that had

been set in secondary schools thus showing that the problem arises from secondary school and continues up to

university without proper intervention. Isaac Masiye (2016).

Theoretical Framework

The phenomenon of substance use to prolong study hours among university students can be examined through

various theoretical lenses. In this section, we discussed three relevant theories that provided a framework for

understanding the prevalence and effects of substance use for cognitive enhancement: Theory of Planned

Behaviour, Social Cognitive Theory and the Self-Medication Hypothesis.

The Planned Behaviour theory states that a person’s intention to involve themselves in a specific behaviour is

determined by his/her attitude towards the same behaviour, the subjective norms, perceived behavioural control

(Ajzen, 1991). In the process of substance use for cognitive enhancement, students' attitudes towards the benefits

and risks of using substances, the influence of peers and social norms, and their perceived ability to control their

substance use may all contribute to their decision to engage in this behaviour. Other former research previously

done has shown that TPB can be a useful framework for understanding substance use among university students

(Collins and Carey, 2007).

The Social Cognitive Theory emphasized on the role of behavioural, cognitive and the environmental factors in

shaping an individual's behaviour (Mimiaga et al., 2009). According to SCT, students may engage in substance

use for cognitive enhancement due to their beliefs about the efficacy of these substances, their observations of

peers using substances, and the availability of substances within their environment. Research has demonstrated

that SCT can help explain the use of prescription stimulants for cognitive enhancement among college students

(Arria and DuPont, 2010; Sharif et al., 2021).

Self-Medication Hypothesis is a theory that has suggests that people use substances to cope with or alleviate

psychological distress (Khantzian, 1997; Turner et al., 2018). In the context of substance use for prolonging study

hours, students may use substances to manage stress, anxiety, or other mental health issues related to their

academic workload. This hypothesis has been supported by research showing that the students who report that

higher levels of stress have a more likely hood of engaging in nonmedical use of prescription stimulants (Butler

et al., 2021; Magnotti et al., 2023).

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The Conceptual Framework

The framework guided the investigation of the prevalence and causes of substance use among Medical and

Business students at the selected university it included the factors contributing to substance use among Medical

and Business students at the selected university these include personal, social, financial and academic factors it

also highlighted the types of substances used the effects it has on Business and Medical students at the selected

university such as their well-being and academic performance.

Personal factors involved ones identity what makes up an individual these included there demographic details

such as the students age, sex, religion, capabilities this had a huge correlation with substance use the conceptual

framework identified several key variables that correlate and cause an increment in the usage of substance use

another one that had been listed in the diagram is social factors that were mentioned earlier in our literature review

stating how peer group influence played a huge role in substance abuse among students. Other Factors included

Availability of substances psychological distress (e.g., stress, anxiety), academic stress e.g. stemming from fear

of failure, having trouble understanding schoolwork, pressure from different lectures wanting students to

complete their work in different specified times all causing students to resort to substance use. financial factors

also contributed to substance use as many students failed to meet their various financial needs beginning from

completion of their tuition fees which determines whether one will sit for exams or not, others included failure

to pay boarding rentals and buy groceries all these contributed to student depression thus resorting to substance

use. However, after examining these variables and their relationships, this research proposal aimed to provide a

comprehensive understanding on the prevalence and causes of substance use among students at the selected

university. findings of this research has helped develop particular interventions and policies used in promoting a

healthy environment for learning and supporting students in acquiring their academic roles without resorting to

potentially harmful substance use.

Figure 2.1: Diagrammatic representation of the Conceptual Framework

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The research problem was based on the prevalence and causes of substance use among Medical and Business

students at the selected university, qualitative data was used this allowed us to formulate a hypothesis which has

been expressed in words, images and interpretations, the data was analyzed by summarizing categorizing and

interpreting. Qualitative research is the collection of non-numerical information to help understand concepts,

opinions and experiences Bhandari (2023). The qualitative approach helped us evaluate and explore the causes

and the prevalence of substance use among a random number of Business and Medical students at selected

university. Primary data was used and a questionnaire was used to gather information from a random sample of

students in both faculties of school of Business and Medicine.

This study employed a cross-sectional research design in line with individual questionnaires that were allocated

to every student in a target population. According to Thomas (2020), a cross-sectional study is a study design

that allows one to collect data at a single point in time. Furthermore, the questionnaire assessed the prevalence of

SUBSTANCE USE

AMONG

STUDENTS

Personal

Factors

Academic

Factors

Financial

Factors

Social Factors

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substance use among students, the most common substance abused and the factors contributing to substance use.

The study designs chosen provided understanding to the problem and helped form the development of target

interventions and policies to promote healthy learning environments.

Study Site

The research context for this study was selected university; a higher education institution located in Zambia. The

university offers a diverse range of undergraduate and postgraduate programs, attracting students from various

backgrounds and disciplines. By focusing on this specific institution, the study provided insights into the unique

cultural, social, and academic factors that may influence substance use among its students. The selected university

served as an ideal setting to investigate this phenomenon, as it represents a microcosm of the broader higher

education landscape in Zambia and allows for the examination of substance use patterns and their effects within

a defined academic community. The findings from this research context had contributed to the understanding of

substance use for cognitive enhancement in higher education settings and informing on development of the

targeted interventions and policies used to promote a healthy learning environment

Sample and Sample Technique

To determine the appropriate size sample for this research the Cochran's formula for calculation of the sample

size in cross-sectional design of studies was used. Therefore, the required sample size for this study was

approximately 288 students. This sample size provided a sufficient level of precision and statistical power to

detect the prevalence of substance use for cognitive enhancement and examine the relationships between

contributing factors and the effects of substance use on students' well-being and academic performance at the

selected University.

To ensure a representative sample of students for this study the researcher research a random sampling that is

stratified technique was employed a combination of convenience and stratified random sampling. The technique

involved dividing the group of the undergraduate student population in homogeneous subgroups that is based on

the relevant characteristics, such as year of study and faculty. Within each stratum, a simple random sampling

technique method was used in selecting the participants, each student had fair chance of being included in this

sample. A stratified random sampling method helped to control potential confounding variables, and it was

ensured that there is a sample representing the diverse undergraduate student population at the selected university.

STUDY FINDINGS

Table 1: Social-Demographic status

Gender

Frequency(n=288)

Percentage(100%)

Female

142

49.3%

MALE

146

50.7%

Total

288

100%

Participants age

Frequency(n=288)

Percentage(100%)

18-20

104

36.1%

21-23

33.0%

24-26

21.9%

27-29

4.9%

30 and above

4.2%

Total

288

100%

Year of study

Frequency(n=288)

Percentage(100%)

Fifth to sixth year

6.9%

First year

28.5%

Fourth year

13.5%

Second year

26.7%

Third year

24.3%

Total

288

100%

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Faculty

Frequency(n=288)

Percentage(100%)

School of business

100

34.7%

School of law

3.1%

School of medicine

179

62.2%

Total

288

100%

The study included a total of 288 participants, consisting of 142 females (49.3%) and 146 males (50.7%).

Regarding the age distribution, the majority of participants fell within the age range of 18 to 20 years, representing

104 individuals (36.1%). Participants aged between 21 and 23 years constituted the second most common age

group, with 95 individuals (33.0%). Additionally, 63 participants (21.9%) were between the ages of 24 and 26,

14 participants (4.9%) were between 27 and 29, and 12 participants (4.2%) were 30 years old or above.

Concerning the academic year, the study included 82 first-year students (28.5%), 77 second-year students

(26.7%), 70 third-year students (24.3%), 39 fourth-year students (13.5%), and 20 fifth to sixth-year students

(6.9%). In terms of faculty distribution, the School of Medicine had the highest representation with 179

participants (62.2%), followed by the School of Business with 100 participants (34.7%), and the School of Law

with 9 participants (3.1%).

Figure 1: Have you ever used any substances (eg... prescription drugs, caffeine , energy drinks etc ) to help you

study longer or improve concentration?

Figure 3: how often do you use the substance for cognitive enhancement?

33(11.5%)

yes

250(86.8%)

yes, No

5(1.7%)

yes

yes, No

Frequency(n=288)

Percentage(100%)

100

DAILY

MONTHLY

OCCASIONALLY

( EG DURING

EXAMS OR

DEADLINES

RARELY

WEEKLY

30.9%

3.1%

33.7%

16%

16.3%

Frequency(n=288) Percentage(100%)

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Among the 288 participants, 250 (86.8%) reported having used substances such as prescription drugs, caffeine,

or energy drinks to help them study longer or improve concentration. A smaller percentage, 33 (11.5%), reported

not using any substances for this purpose, while 5 participants (1.7%) did not provide a clear response.

Among those who reported using substances for cognitive enhancement, caffeine (e.g., energy drinks, coffee)

was the most commonly used substance, with 119 participants (41.3%) selecting it. Over-the-counter medications

(e.g., Benylin, Vivarin) were also frequently used, with 70 participants (24.3%) reporting their use. Other

substances commonly used included prescription stimulants (e.g., Ritalin, Adderall), reported by 10 participants

(3.5%), and illicit drugs (e.g., cocaine, amphetamines), reported by 4 participants (1.4%).

Regarding the reasons for using substances, academic pressure was the most frequently cited precipitant, with

174 participants (60.4%) indicating it as a reason for their substance use. Peer pressure was also a significant

factor, with 84 participants (29.2%) reporting it as a reason for their substance use. Other reasons included sports

and academics, not wanting to sleep (1 participant, 0.3%), and feeling incapable or having low self-esteem (1

participant, 0.3%).

The frequency of substance uses for cognitive enhancement varied among participants. Among the respondents,

89 (30.9%) reported using substances daily, 97 (33.7%) reported using them occasionally (e.g., during exams or

deadlines), and 47 (16.3%) reported using them weekly. Only a small number of participants reported using

substances monthly (9 participants, 3.1%) or rarely (46 participants, 16.0%).

Table 2: Factors Contributing to Substance Use

Do you think using substances to prolong study hours is necessary to achieve academic success

Responses

Frequency(n=288)

Percentage(100%)

agree

13.9%

disagree

29.2%

neutral

27.8%

strongly agrees

10.4%

strongly disagree

18.8%

How would you rate the availability of substances on campus or in your environment?

Responses

Frequency(n=288)

Percentage(100%)

easily available

27.4%

not available at all

5.6%

not easily available

28.5%

very easily available

111

38.5%

Have you observed or heard about your peers using substances for cognitive enhancement?

Responses

Frequency(n=288)

Percentage(100%)

no, never

5.2%

yes , but rarely

18.8%

yes , frequently

110

38.2%

yes , occasionally

109

37.8%

Among the 288 participants, opinions were divided on whether using substances to prolong study hours is

necessary to achieve academic success. 30 participants (10.4%) strongly agreed, 40 participants (13.9%) agreed,

80 participants (27.8%) were neutral, 84 participants (29.2%) disagreed, and 54 participants (18.8%) strongly

disagreed.

Regarding the availability of substances on campus or in their environment, 111 participants (38.5%) reported

that substances were very easily available, while 79 participants (27.4%) indicated that substances were easily

available. 82 participants (28.5%) reported that substances were not easily available, and only 16 participants

(5.6%) stated that substances were not available at all.

When asked whether they had observed or heard about their peers’ using substances for cognitive enhancement,

responses varied. 110 participants (38.2%) reported that their peers used substances frequently, while 109

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participants (37.8%) reported that their peers used substances occasionally. 54 participants (18.8%) reported that

their peers rarely used substances for cognitive enhancement, and only 15 participants (5.2%) stated that they had

never observed or heard about their peers’ using substances for this purpose.

Table 3: Effects of Substance Use on Well-being and Academic Performance

Based on your experience, how would you rate the overall effectiveness of using

substances to prolong study hours or improve concentration?

Responses

Frequency(n=288)

Percentage(100%)

Missing responses

0.3%

effective

27.4%

not effective at all

12.8%

not very effective

144

50.0%

very effective

9.4%

Do you believe that using substances has had a positive , negative

Responses

Frequency(n=288)

Percentage(100%)

negative impact

202

70.1%

positive impact

29.9%

Based on the participants' experiences, the effectiveness of using substances to prolong study hours or improve

concentration varied. Among the 288 participants, 27 (9.4%) found substances very effective, 79 (27.4%) found

them effective, 144 (50.0%) found them not very effective, and 37 (12.8%) found them not effective at all. One

participant did not respond to this question.

When asked about negative side effects experienced from using substances for cognitive enhancement,

participants reported various issues. Among the 288 participants, 17 (5.9%) reported dependency and addiction,

31 (10.8%) reported experiencing no negative side effects, and 1 (0.3%) participant each reported fatigue,

increased anxiety, mood swings, and physical health issues (e.g., headaches, heart palpitations, diarrhea).

Moreover, 59 participants (20.5%) reported physical health issues along with dependency and addiction, 22

participants (7.6%) reported sleep disturbance, and 4 participants (1.4%) reported sleep disturbance along with

increased anxiety.

Regarding the impact of substance use on academic performance, most participants reported negative effects.

Among the 288 participants, 202 (70.1%) believed that using substances had a negative impact on their academic

performance, while 86 (29.9%) believed it had a positive impact.

DISCUSSION

Theme 1: Prevalence of Substance Use

An investigation was conducted into the prevalence of substance use among the students studying business and

medicine at the selected university. Out of the 288 participants, 250 (86.8%) said they had used drugs, energy

drinks, or prescription medications to prolong their studies or sharpen their focus. This high prevalence suggests

that the students at the selected university frequently use drugs to improve their cognitive function. The most

often used substance was caffeine (found in coffee and energy drinks), chosen by 119 participants (41.3%). A

further common use was of over-the-counter drugs (e.g., Benylin, Vivarin), reported by 70 participants (24.3%).

Substance abuse was more common in some age groups, academic years, and faculty than in others.

The bulk of participants (36.1%) were between the ages of 18 and 20, and 28.5% were first-year students. With

179 participants (62.2%), the School of Medicine had the largest representation. The School of Business came in

second with 100 participants (34.7%). The study looked into the causes of substance use as well. There was

disagreement among participants regarding the necessity of using drugs to extend study sessions in order to

succeed academically. Seventy-one percent of them thought that using drugs had a detrimental effect on their

academic performance. This suggests that the students at the selected university believe drug use has a negative

impact on their ability to succeed academically

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Theme 2: Commonly Used Substances

The study sheds light on the drugs that that the students at the selected university studying medicine and business

most frequently use. Of the 288 participants, 250 (86.8%) said they used drugs, energy drinks, or prescription

medications to prolong their study sessions or sharpen their focus. The most often used substance was caffeine

(found in coffee and energy drinks), chosen by 119 participants (41.3%). A further common use was of over-the-

counter drugs (e.g., Benylin, Vivarin), reported by 70 participants (24.3%). Furthermore, 10 participants (3.5%)

reported using prescription stimulants like Ritalin or Adderall, and 4 participants (1.4%) reported using illicit

drugs like cocaine or amphetamines.

These results imply that the most popular drugs for improving cognitive function among the medical and business

students at the selected university are coffee and over-the-counter medications. The study also looked at the

motivations behind substance use, and the most commonly mentioned catalyst (60.4%) was academic pressure.

Peer pressure (29.2%) and the desire to overcome low self-esteem or feelings of inadequacy (0.3%) were two

more important factors. Substance use for cognitive enhancement was reported by participants at varying

frequencies: 30.9% reported daily use, 33.7% reported occasional use, and 16.3% reported weekly use. Merely

3.1% of participants reported using drugs on a monthly basis, while 16.0% reported using them infrequently.

These results shed light on the prevalence and usage patterns of drugs among the students studying medicine and

business at the selected university, offering important new information for future investigations and preventative

measures.

Theme 3: Causes of Substance Use

The study clarifies the variables influencing substance use among that the students at the selected university

studying medicine and business. Of the 288 participants, 250 (86.8%) said they used drugs, energy drinks, or

prescription medications to prolong their study sessions or sharpen their focus. With 174 participants (60.4%)

citing academic pressure as a reason for substance use, it was found to be the most commonly cited precipitant.

Another important factor was peer pressure, which was cited by 84 participants (29.2%) as the cause of their

substance use. Other motivations included the desire to overcome low self-esteem or feelings of inadequacy (1

participant, 0.3%), as well as engaging in extracurricular activities and sports and having trouble falling asleep

(1 participant, 0.3%).

These results imply that the main drivers of substance use among medical and business students are peer pressure

and academic performance. Furthermore, 190 participants (66.0%) reported that substances were easily or very

easily available, indicating that the availability of substances on campus or in their surroundings was perceived

as being relatively high. Furthermore, 109 participants (37.8%) reported that their peers used substances

occasionally for cognitive enhancement, while 110 participants (38.2%) reported that their peers used substances

frequently.

These results suggest that among the medical and business students at the selected university, the prevalence of

substance use among peers may play a role in normalizing and increasing the use of substances for cognitive

enhancement.

Comparative statistics

Demographics: The demographics of the participants in this study align with those of several previous studies.

For instance, the majority of participants in this study fell within the age range of 18 to 23 years, with 36.1% aged

18 to 20 and 33.0% aged 21 to 23. This is consistent with the findings of Arria et al. (2020), who also found that

the highest rates of substance use were among students aged 18 to 23 years. However, while this study found a

higher representation of substance use among younger participants, Arria et al. (2020) reported the highest

prevalence of substance use among older students, with the highest prevalence of substance use reported among

24 to 26-year-olds. Furthermore, the distribution of participants across faculties in this study was similar to that

reported in other studies. The School of Medicine had the highest representation, with 62.2% of participants,

followed by the School of Business with 34.7%. This is consistent with the findings of McCabe et al. (2006),

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who also found a higher representation of substance use among medical students compared to students from other

faculties.

Substance Use: The prevalence of substance use reported in this study is higher than that reported in some

previous studies. Among the 288 participants, 86.8% reported using substances for cognitive enhancement.

Caffeine (41.3%) and over-the-counter medications (24.3%) were the most commonly used substances. These

findings are consistent with those of Smith and Farah (2011), who reported caffeine as the most commonly used

substance among students for cognitive enhancement. However, the prevalence rates of substance use in this

study are higher than those reported by Smith and Farah (2011), who found that around 20% of students reported

using stimulants for cognitive enhancement.

Factors Contributing to Substance Use: The reasons for substance use reported in this study are similar to those

reported in previous research. Academic pressure (60.4%) and peer pressure (29.2%) were identified as the main

reasons for substance use. These findings are consistent with those of McCabe et al. (2006), who found that

academic pressure was the most commonly cited reason for non-medical use of prescription stimulants among

college students.

Effects of Substance Use: Regarding the effectiveness of substance use for cognitive enhancement, 36.8% of

participants in this study found substances effective or very effective. However, the majority (62.8%) reported

negative side effects from substance use, including dependency and addiction (5.9%) and physical health issues

(20.5%). These findings are similar to those reported by Maier et al. (2013), who found that while students

perceived benefits from using stimulants for cognitive enhancement, they also reported experiencing negative

side effects.

In summary, while this study provides valuable insights into the prevalence and patterns of substance use among

Business and Medical students at the selected university, the findings are generally consistent with those of

previous research. However, there are some differences in the prevalence rates of substance use and the reasons

reported for substance use, highlighting the need for further research in this area.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, this study successfully satisfies the specific objectives established to ascertain the types, prevalence,

and causes of substance use among the students of the selected university studying medicine and business. The

results show that drug use is very common among students, with 86.8% of participants reporting using drugs,

energy drinks, or prescription medications to improve their cognitive function. The most often used substances

were found to be over-the-counter medications (24.3%) and caffeine (41.3%), suggesting a preference for readily

available and lawful options for cognitive enhancement. The main causes of substance use were found to be peer

pressure (29.2%) and academic pressure (60.4%), highlighting the important roles these factors play in

influencing students' behavior. This study offers important insights into the types, prevalence, and causes of

substance use among the students at the selected university studying medicine and business by focusing on these

particular goals. The results highlight the necessity of focused interventions and support systems to deal with

student substance use and advance their academic performance and well-being. The study's conclusions also add

to the corpus of knowledge already available on drug use among college students, particularly in Zambia.

Universities can create evidence-based strategies to support students, improve their academic performance, and

promote their well-being by researching the different types and causes of substance use. To better understand the

long-term impacts of substance abuse on students' health and academic performance, as well as to create and

assess intervention programs catered to the unique requirements of the students at the selected university studying

business and medicine, more research is necessary.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are proposed:

 Develop Awareness Programs: Implement awareness programs targeted at Medical and Business

students to educate them about the risks associated with substance use for cognitive enhancement. These

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programs should provide evidence-based information about the potential negative effects of substance use

on health and academic performance.

 Enhance Support Services: Expand support services within the university to provide students with

alternative coping mechanisms for academic and peer pressure. Counseling services should be readily

available for students experiencing academic stress, and peer support groups could be established to

promote positive coping strategies.

 Promote Healthy Study Habits: Encourage the development of healthy study habits among students,

such as time management, regular breaks, adequate sleep, and proper nutrition. Providing resources and

workshops on study skills and stress management techniques could help students cope with academic

pressures without resorting to substance use.

 Restrict Access to Substances: Implement policies to regulate the availability of substances on campus

and in the surrounding environment. This may include restricting the sale of caffeinated beverages and

over-the-counter medications on campus, as well as monitoring the use of prescription stimulants.

 Further Research and Evaluation: Conduct further research to explore the long-term effects of substance

use on students' health and academic performance. Evaluate the effectiveness of intervention programs

aimed at reducing substance use among Medical and Business students at the selected university.

 Collaboration with Health Professionals: Foster collaboration between university administrators,

faculty members, and health professionals to address substance use issues among students. This

multidisciplinary approach can help develop comprehensive strategies to support students and promote

their overall well-being.

By implementing these recommendations, the selected university can effectively address the issue of substance

use among Medical and Business students, ultimately promoting a healthier and more supportive learning

environment.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to all those who contributed to the completion of this study,

including the respondents of the study and management of the selected university for the relevant permission to

carry out the study.

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