INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November 2025
Page 5715
www.rsisinternational.org
Exploring
A Qualitative Study
Faria Jahan Oishe
International relations, University of Chittagong
ABSTRACT
A significant number of indigenous women move to the city for their livelihood. During this period, these
women might experience double marginalization, both as a woman and as a member of minority group. The
case study focuses on indigenous female RMG workers who migrate to Chittagong city. The findings will reveal
the harmful treatment these women endure and how it affects their mental health. In order to truly develop as a
nation, it is crucial to address the struggles of marginalized groups. In conclusion, this paper aims to contribute
to policy development regarding indigenous and women’s rights.
Keywords: Double marginalization, indigenous, migration.
INTRODUCTION
Women are being oppressed in this patriarchic social structure for quite a long time. These oppressions refer to
systematic and historical marginalization in various aspects of life including social, economic, political and
cultural spheres. It can occur in different forms, such as gender- based violence, wage-discrimination, limited
access to healthcare and education, discriminative societal norms limiting women’s rights, freedoms etc. Such
discriminatory actions put women in a vulnerable position in the society and harm not only women themselves
but also their families, communities and the entire society. This systematically disadvantageous position of
women leads them to negative consequences socially, economically and psychologically.
Already being in a tough position due to their identity as a woman, the difficulties may increase more if they
belong from any ethnic communities. Indigenous people represent only 1% of Bangladesh’s population. In our
society, ethnic groups also face systematic exclusion, discrimination and disadvantages. They are denied of the
equal access to resources, opportunities and participation in social, economic and political life. Which is why,
life of an indigenous woman becomes more challenging as she faces oppression both as a woman and as a
member of the minority group.
A lot of indigenous women in our country, move to major cities every year for better opportunities. In the hill
tracts, they suffer from poverty, lack of access to education and have a very poor living standard. Due to all
these reasons, many of them choose to migrate to cities and join factories or ready-made garment sectors. This
paper is about the indigenous female RMG workers who live in the EPZ areas in Chittagong city. According
to the research, around 1 lakh of indigenous migrants live in that particular area, who work in the factories,
garments or have small shops in that area.
As women are a vital part of our society and economy, it is crucial to shed light to their difficulties and take
necessary steps in order to ensure proper development of our country. There is a very little research to date in
Bangladesh highlighting the double marginalization of indigenous women and its effects on them. This
researcher has chosen to undertake this particular topic in order to understand the psychological effects that
double marginalization have on the life of indigenous female RGB workers who move to the city for a better
life.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November 2025
Page 5716
www.rsisinternational.org
It is hoped that this research will provide an answer to the following research question:
• What kind of difficulties indigenous female RMG workers face due to their identity both as a women
and member of indigenous group?
• How does double marginalization make the life of indigenous female RMG workers more challenging?
• What kind of psychological affect does double marginalization have on these women?
The researcher believes that the study will provide a better understanding about the institutional violence and
discrimination these women face in different aspects of their lives and how double marginalization affects their
private life, who are a vital part of our society and economy. It is hoped that the study will be used to develop
services and policies to ensure a better living condition for marginalized women.
LITERATURE REVIEW
The double marginalization of indigenous women is a global issue. It is true in case of south Asian countries
like: India, China, Bangladesh as well as global north like: Canada or in countries of African region. A lot of
researchers in many countries have undertaken this issue to be addressed. In this section, the researcher will
review the existing studies related to double marginalization of indigenous women and will try to establish the
conceptual framework to guide the study.
Double marginalization and definitions
Marginalization refers to the discriminations a person faces due to his identity. When a person’s identity puts
him on a disadvantageous position in society and faces discriminations based on his identity, it is called
marginalization.
Double marginalization is the discriminations that an individual faces due to the intersection of two of his
identity. This study is about the double marginalization of indigenous women. The identity of both women and
indigeneity put them in a very vulnerable position in our society. Women have been facing systematic and
historical oppressions for years which lag them behind in the society and development sectors. The indigenous
community are minority in our country representing a very small portion of the population. A lot of times they
are denied of their equal rights and comes to a very little attention in terms of development. When the gender-
based identity intersects with the indigenous identity, the double marginalization of indigenous women occurs.
Double discrimination that indigenous women face
In different countries all over the world, the women of minority groups are exposed to great vulnerability due
to double discrimination regarding various aspects like: economic, political, education and healthcare, cultural
etc. Several case studies have been undertaken by researchers as well as many development organizations
around world regarding the double discrimination of indigenous women.
Indigenous women are the most vulnerable among indigenous peoples and face double discrimination on the
basis of their gender for being women and for their ethnicity for being indigenous. In some parts of the world,
there is triple burden to bear as indigenous women are also poor (Roy, 2004).
In a study conducted by ILO, the experiences of three Bangladeshi indigenous women were portrayed. The
challenges that have been addressed are:
As indigenous communities often belong to linguistic minorities, it causes hardship in education, employment
and everyday life.
• Indigenous community are often situated in remote, rural areas, where they lack infrastructure and access
to larger markets.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November 2025
Page 5717
www.rsisinternational.org
• Traditional livelihood in indigenous communities may depend upon parts of fragile ecosystems.
Environmental damage therefore often severely impacts their economy.
• Land reform and property laws often made their traditional occupations untenable.
• As minority groups, their interests and needs are often ignored by the decision-makers.
• Years of discrimination have led indigenous people into poverty, farther damaging their chances of
empowerment and opportunities to improve their situation (ILO, 2007)
Another study regarding the double burden on indigenous women in the northeastern region of India was
conducted by a research consultant at Aide-et-Action Guwahati. In that study, the researcher tried to show how
these women are subjected to multiple levels of discrimination, abuse and suffer from poverty, sexual
exploitation and lack of access to basic healthcare. By analyzing data from National Crime Records Bureau,
she showed that;
• Alarming number of indigenous women in Assam are killed in the name of ‘witch hunting’. A high
number of women are kidnapped and forced into prostitution.
• Muslim women from Char areas of Assam lack of social, economic, educational and political rights
(Barua, 2021).
Another Indian researcher portrayed the difficulties of intersecting identity of indigenous women by comparing
indigenous women from global south in ‘India’ and global north in ‘Canada’. The case study revealed
experiences of two women -one in Maharashtra, India and another in First Nations of Vancouver, British
Columbia, Canada (Banerjee, 2016).
A research work showed over 90% of indigenous women in Africa are illiterate and deprived of right to
education, media and information etc. They are unaware of the existence of various rights and laws which are
developed for them universally. Thus, they face violence of basic rights in various aspects of their life (Simat,
2012).
Marginalization also effects health care delivery. Joan E. Dodgson and Roxanne Struthers examined experiences
of 57 indigenous women and portrayed the detrimental impact of marginalization on health status of individuals
(Dodgson and Struthers, 2002).
Several studies have been done regarding the double discrimination and equal rights of indigenous women in
Quebec. According to a study conducted by University of Miami Law Review, due to the intersection of the
identity both as women and as indigenous people, these women are often victims of greater marginalization in
society. Such discrimination is interconnected with various forms of human right violations. Indigenous women
may face challenges regarding their rights to healthcare and education; might become victim of involuntary
displacements etc. which may lead them to prostitution, drug abuse, abusive relationship etc. problems
(Duhaime and Riverin, 2011).
Addressing the burden of double migration
Indigenous women all over the world suffer from the discriminations of double marginalization. It is true in
case of Bangladesh as well as many other countries around the world. A lot of time indigenous women are not
aware of their rights. Policy or decision makers ignore the interest of indigenous women. Ignoring this portion
of the population will hinder the proper growth of our country. The challenges of double marginalization need
to be addressed so that the policy makers and social organs do not ignore the sufferings of the indigenous women
and works to ensure a better life for them.
METHODOLOGY
A qualitative approach was chosen as the research method for this study. It was considered more relevant as it
allowed to gain more in dept experiences of the indigenous female RMG workers. Semi-structured interviews
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November 2025
Page 5718
www.rsisinternational.org
were carried out as it allowed participants to be more flexible and provided more information. A questionnaire
tool was provided with open-ended questions, which allowed the participants to share more meaning-based
experiences. A snowball sampling method was used to carry out the research. Two of the subjects were
acquaintances of the researcher. Other participants were recommended through their social network. Initially,
fifteen participants were contacted by the researcher for interview. However, they decided to back out due the
sensitive nature of the study.
Participant
no.
Age
Ethnic
identity
Place of work
Job title
Year of migration
1.
23
Marma
YOUNGONE
QC
2018
2.
24
Marma
YOUNGONE
Operator
2019
3.
22
Marma
M&J
Operator
2018
4.
26
Chakma
Nassa Group
Operator
2019
5.
23
Chakma
Nassa Group
Operator
2019
6.
25
Chakma
M&J
Operator
2019
7.
22
Tripura
YOUNGONE
Operator
2018
Data collection took place in 15 December, 2024 and 24 January, 2025. Interviews were recorded with the
personal device of the researcher. Two participants, who were acquaintances of the researcher were contacted
through telephone first. Their interviews were carried out in their homes as they felt more comfortable there.
Other participants were recommended by those two. Their interviews were carried out as focus group study as
they were unwilling to provide one on one interview. A semi-structured interview with open-ended questions
were carried out. Each participant was presented similar set of questionnaire tool to share their experiences.
With mostly open-ended questions, a small number of close- ended questions were used like: name, age, ethnic
identity, place of work etc.
A pilot interview was also carried out before the actual research. It allowed the researcher to understand the
thoughts and feelings of the interviewee regarding the topic of the study and the structure of the questionnaire
tool while identifying if any question might make the subject feel uncomfortable. After the collection of data,
it was transcribed first and then analyzed, interpreted and verified. Transcribing the interviews, helped the
researcher to gain more understanding of the subject. Then the data was analyzed and interpreted highlighting
similarities and differences of data. Final stage, the data verification process, where transcripts were rechecked
to verify or modify hypothesis arrived previously.
Ethical consideration
The researcher made it clear to the participants that their participation was on a voluntary basis and they were
free to withdraw the study any time. They were under no obligation to answer any question which made them
feel uncomfortable with. Participants were given advance notice prior to the interview. They were also provided
with an outline about the subject to be discussed, reason of the study and how the study will be used. Sufficient
time before and after the interview was provided to the participants to ask any questions relating to the research
topic.
Limitations of the study
While undertaking the study, the researcher encountered some limitations. Small number of participants is the
most notable one which meant that one has to be cautious in generalizing from the findings. However, the semi-
structured questionnaire tool method was proved very useful in gaining more in dept and meaningful
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November 2025
Page 5719
www.rsisinternational.org
information from individuals in an open and honest way. This provided a valuable insight to the researcher into
the participants personal experiences of double marginalization and its effect on their mental health.
Findings
Participants
1. Participant no. one is a 23 years old female belonging from Marma community. She works in the
“YOUNGONE” company and her job tile is QC. She has migrated to the Chittagong city back in 2018. She
is staying in the EPZ area since then.
2. Participant no. 2 is a 24 years old female who also belongs from Marma community. She also works in
the “YOUNGONE” company as an operator. She has migrated back in 2019, since then she is staying here
at the EPZ area.
3. Participant no. 3 is a 22 years old female and she is also from Marma community. She works in the
“M&J group” as an operator and has migrated to EPZ area in 2018.
4. Participant no. 4 is a 26 years old female belonging from Chakma community. She works in the “Nassa
Group” as an operator and migrated to EPZ area in 2019.
5. The fifth participant is also from Chakma community, a 23 years old female working in the “Nassa
Group” as an operator. She has also migrated to EPZ area back in 2019.
6. The sixth participant is a 25 years old female from Chakma community, working as an operator in the
“M&J” Group. She has also migrated to Chittagong back in 2019.
7. The last participant is a 22 years old female from the Tripura community. She works in the
“YOUNGONE” Group as an operator and has migrated to EPZ area back in 2018.
Difficulties faced by indigenous women
All of the participants had shared the discriminations they have to suffer as an indigenous woman. Most of them
had migrated to the city hoping for a better life. But reality was more tough for them. In the city, they were
treated like as if they were some exotic creatures. Some even faced discrimination in workplace based on their
ethnic identity.
Being women, we always have to endure catcalling on streets. But in my home land I didn’t have to go through
these kinds of catcalling. Harassers use words like “Ching-Chang-Chung” or phares like- snake eaters etc. to
tease us.
(Participant: 4)
The life in the hill tracts were full of poverty and lack of opportunities to turn their life better. In order to escape
that vulnerable situation these women migrated to the cities hoping there would be better opportunities. But
even at the workplace they had to suffer from discriminations. In some of the garment companies there is a
wage difference between male and female workers. Besides, they had to endure some additional difficulties due
to their ethnic identity.
There was a time when companies wouldn’t take any indigenous people at work saying- we won’t take any
“Chakmas” (indicating indigenous people) to work.
(Participant: 6)
In the factory, a lot of times mikes are installed where Islamic speeches by preachers are played. Sometimes
those speeches contain hatred against our religion. Those really hurt our religious sentiment.
(Participant: 3)
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November 2025
Page 5720
www.rsisinternational.org
If we try to protest against any injustice at our workplace, we have to go through a lot of hardships; they
deliberately point out mistakes to make work tough for us, sometimes they transfer us. There is even record of
dismissing from work.
(Participant: 7)
There are even some incidents where local goons under the name of politicians, used to threaten indigenous
women to ruin their reputation and demand money. Fearing the damage of their dignity, they used to give
money.
If any male guest comes to our home, local goons used to lock our doors and would threaten us saying we are
doing illegal works and demand money from us. Fearing they would ruin our reputation, we used to give them
money.
(Participant: 1)
More challenging life
The oppression based on the ethnic identity puts the indigenous women on an extra vulnerable situation in our
society. Women in our society are already deprived of equal rights and opportunities. The additional challenges
that they face as ethnic minority are: less opportunity for education, poverty, poor living standard in the hill
tracts, fewer scopes and helps from the government for development.
One or two schools that we had in our area were very far from our home. So, attending schools or educational
institutes was very tough.
(Participant: 2)
The internet service or network service in general was very weak in our area. So, connecting to the world outside
or self-learning was very difficult.
(Participant: 5)
Due to land reform acts, we had lost our lands. We had to live in poverty which is why I decided to join the
Ready-Made Garment sector for a better life.
(Participant: 7)
Psychological effect of double marginalization
According to the participants these discriminations are hampering their mental well-being in many ways.
I cannot get out of my house in a carefree mood. I always have to think if I am dressed properly or walking
properly. I mostly avoid going out alone. I always try to take a company whenever I go outside.
(Participant: 3)
I have to think twice before wearing my traditional clothes. People give very weird looks and call out by
different name. It is a very uncomfortable situation.
(Participant: 6)
Sometimes heart becomes very heavy thinking what possibly could I have done wrong to endure all these hateful
words and actions.
(Participant: 2)
DISCUSSION
The objective of this research was to understand the psychological impact that double marginalization has on
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November 2025
Page 5721
www.rsisinternational.org
indigenous female RMG workers. By analyzing the data obtained from the findings it is clear that double
marginalization has a very negative impact on their mental health. All participants reported that the constant
objectification from the society always keeps them paranoid and are unable to feel completely secure in this
societal structure.
Mental well-being is one of the most significant aspects for the development of an individual. If a person is
always on distress, one can never fully commit oneself in any other spheres of life. Indigenous women in this
patriarchic societal structure, remain at a vulnerable position and need constant help and support from the
society.
Policies regarding Indigenous RMG workers
There are no specific policies for indigenous RMG workers, let alone female RMG workers. The policy issue
regarding them is covered by the same broad labor laws and safety standards as all other workers in the sector.
That is why indigenous female workers face various challenges regarding their rights and poor working
conditions for which they require targeted support from existing framework.
Implications of the findings
From the findings it is understood that the indigenous female RGM workers who are staying in the EPZ area,
feel the lack of support from the society and government. If there were enough social services and attention
from the government, their hardships would have reduced a lot.
Instead of general labor laws, government should create policies regarding indigenous female workers. This
will help to address issues like wages, working hours, safety and security etc. Besides Organizations and NGOs
which are working for female RMG workers, indigenous workers or females in general should step up to create
broad programs to ensure women’s rights in RMG sector which can be applied to indigenous RMG female
workers as well.
The findings from this study could be implemented as a guide to provide required help to them and could be
used while policy making decisions in order to understand what kind of policies would help to secure a better
life for them.
Comparison with other research works
The findings of this research study mirror the findings of other research carried out on the double
marginalization of indigenous women in different places all over the world. The constant challenges from the
family and society make their life very difficult and fight against the world makes their mental well-being tough
to be secured. No matter if it is an indigenous woman from the Quebec, India, the African region or in
Bangladesh, they are in a vulnerable position in all over the world.
CONCLUSION
The study of this research explained the vulnerability of the indigenous female RMG workers who have
migrated in the EPZ area of Chittagong and the negative effect of this vulnerable position in their mental health.
As they are a significant part of our population and play a vital role in the economic growth, it is essential to
recognize their sufferings and take necessary steps to make their life better. If the government and the
development organizations work together to provide them required help and support, their empowerment is
possible. Although it is a very challenging work as they are in a marginalized position for such a long time but
it is not impossible to be achieved.
REFERENCES
1. Roy, C.k, (2004). Indigenous women: A Gender perspective. Aboriginal policy Research Consortium
International (APRCi).
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XI November 2025
Page 5722
www.rsisinternational.org
2. Indigenous women overcome multiple obstacles. (2007, March 13). International Labor Organization.
Review:
https://www.ilo.org/publications/indigenous-women-overcome-multiple-obstacles
3. Simat, M, (2012). Violence against Indigenous Women and Girls in the Name of Traditional and Cultural
Practices. International Expert Group Meeting Combating violence against Indigenous Women and
Girls: Article 22 of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous peoples.
4. Duhaime, B. & Riverin, J.A. (2011). Double Discrimination and Equality Rights of Indigenous Women
in Quebec. 65 U. Miami l. Rev. 903.
5.
Banerjee, S. (2016). Indigenous women and intersectional feminist praxis: Contemporary marginalities
and marginal voices from India and Canada. South Asian Journal of Participative Development, 16(2),
14-22.
6. Dodgson JE, Struthers R. Indigenous Women’s Voices: Marginalization and Health. Journal of
Transcultural Nursing. 2005;16(4):339-346. doi:
10.1177/1043659605278942
7. Barua, T. (2021). Double marginalization: What the Decades of Action holds for India’s Northeastern
women.
https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/double-marginalisation-what-decade-action-holds-india-
northeastern-women.
