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Survey of Video-based Learning Deployment by Secondary School
Teachers
Airil Haimi Mohd Adnan
Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Shah Alam, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.91100050
Received: 09 November 2025; Accepted: 22 November 2025; Published: 28 November 2025
ABSTRACT
This empirical research investigates the use of video-based learning (VBL) amongst secondary school teachers
in Malaysia, focusing on instructional video creation, pedagogical value, student engagement strategies and
system-wide challenges (a survey was carried out with primary teachers and reported in another paper). Data
were collected in 2025 through an online survey involving 253 postgraduate Diploma in Education candidates
aged between 26 and 43. The sample reflected Malaysia’s multi-ethnicity and comprised 72 males and 181
females. All of the respondents held undergraduate degrees and were completing their final practicum
placements as student-teachers. The survey instrument consisted of 32 items structured around four central
questions. The findings indicate that whilst a minority of teachers create original contents, such as explainer
videos and micro-learning segments, the majority actively source subject-specific VBL materials aligned with
the national curriculum. Respondents consistently rated VBL as highly effective in simplifying complex concepts
and enhancing visual understanding for students in Forms 1 to 5. Design features such as video length (three to
five minutes), real-world examples, age-appropriate presentation and visual signalling techniques were
considered effective in sustaining attention and promoting cognitive engagement. However, several barriers to
VBL integration were identified. These included limited access to technical infrastructure, insufficient training
in video production and time constraints resulting from heavy teaching schedules. The findings highlight the
need for targeted professional development, improved system-wide support and consideration of workload issues
to enable sustainable adoption of VBL in Malaysian secondary schools.
Keywords: video-based learning, secondary level, education research, survey, Malaysia
INTRODUCTION
The digitalisation of education in Malaysia has prompted shifts in pedagogical approaches, particularly in
secondary education where established practices are being reimagined through technology-enhanced methods
(Aspandi & Muttaqin, 2025; Chang et al., 2013; Mistretta, 2024; Peter et al., 2025). VBL has surfaced as an
especially advantageous pedagogical tool, presenting possibilities for demystifying abstract concepts,
strengthening visual comprehension skills, and supporting varied learning tempos among adolescent learners.
Although Malaysia's Ministry of Education has committed substantial resources to digital infrastructure
development and educational platforms including DELIMa, uncertainties persist regarding the extent to which
teachers are successfully embedding VBL within their instructional routines at the secondary level (Ahmad et
al., 2019; Mohd Adnan, 2020; Sablić et al., 2021; Yusof et al., 2019).
Teachers working with secondary-aged pupils encounter obstacles in VBL adoption. Producing educationally
effective videos demands both technical proficiency and comprehension of developmentally suitable design
conventions appropriate for learners in Forms 1 through 5 (see Karim, Adnan, Salim, et al., 2020; Karim, Adnan,
Tahir, et al., 2020; Mustafa Kamal et al., 2019; Shah et al., 2025). Nevertheless, a substantial proportion depend
primarily upon pre-existing curated materials rather than producing customised content responsive to their
particular classroom circumstances. Notwithstanding increasing institutional emphasis on VBL implementation,
empirical investigations analysing teachers’ authentic deployment patterns, perceptions of instructional efficacy,
and obstacles to successful integration remain scarce (Adnan, 2020; Adnan et al., 2020; Adnan & Ahmad et al.,
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2019; Adnan & Karim et al., 2019; Mohd Kamal et al., 2019). The present investigation fills this void by
examining responses from 253 postgraduate Diploma in Education candidates completing their placements in
local secondary schools, exploring four domains: practices surrounding content generation, perceptions of
pedagogical utility, design elements supporting learner engagement, and systemic impediments to
implementation.
LITERATURE REVIEW
VBL implementation exhibits considerable variation across educational settings, especially in developing nations
where infrastructural capacity and educator readiness demonstrate notable inconsistency (Alazmi, 2023;
Snoeyink, 2010). This section synthesises existing scholarship across four interconnected areas that establish the
conceptual foundation for examining Malaysian secondary teachers’ VBL practices.
Teachers’ VBL content creation and resource ecology
Within pedagogical environments, scholarly work by Meng et al. (2022) and Yousef et al. (2014) distinguishes
between educators who generate original educational materials and those who select pre-existing resources.
Empirical evidence indicates that instructor-generated video contents often yield enhanced learning outcomes
owing to contextual relevance and curriculum-specific alignment (de Araujo et al., 2017; Pegrum & Bower,
2021; Torrington et al., 2021). This occurs notwithstanding the extensive collections of educational videos
accessible through platforms including YouTube and institutional repositories. However, video production
demands temporal investment, technical capability, and organisational backing that might be limited across
numerous educational settings (Hsu et al., 2022; Ramos et al., 2022). Research by Tembrevilla and MilnerBolotin
(2025) further reveals that educators throughout Southeast Asian contexts exhibit reliance upon externally
sourced educational videos, prompting concerns regarding the cultural appropriateness and contextual relevance
of these contents.
Perceived usefulness and cognitive clarity
Drawing upon Granić and Marangunić’s (2019) scholarship, the Technology Acceptance Model identifies
perceived utility as a determinant of technology uptake among educational practitioners. Advocates contend that
visual modalities enhance understanding of abstract subject matter, particularly benefiting teenage learners who
gain advantages from multimodal instructional approaches (McTighe & Ferrara, 2021; Shih, 2010). Proponents
of VBL maintain that such approaches facilitate learners’ comprehension of conceptually challenging material
(Hußner et al., 2024). Investigations into cognitive load conducted by Costley et al. (2021) and Faber et al.
(2024) demonstrate that thoughtfully constructed video segments support knowledge scaffolding whilst
concurrently minimising extraneous cognitive processing demands. Within the Malaysian context, empirical
evidence examining educators’ perceptions of VBL’s pedagogical efficacy relative to traditional ‘old school’
methods remains limited (Mohd Adnan, 2025a).
Effectiveness of engagement features for secondary students
Scholarly literature indicates that instructional videos designed for secondary-level learners should maintain
durations approximating three to five minutes to optimise attention and comprehension (Allen, 2016; Omar,
2025). Design frameworks for pedagogically sound educational videos emphasise the importance of conciseness
(Gentile et al., 2025). Evidence demonstrates that signalling mechanisms, including on-screen arrows,
highlighted text, and annotations, effectively guide learner attention and strengthen retention (Currie, 2013;
Mercier & Higgins, 2013). Furthermore, conversational delivery and appropriate humour demonstrate potential
for enhancing engagement, though cultural context also influences the suitability of such elements
(BernadMechó & Girón-García, 2023; Qamar et al., 2025). That being said, whilst gamification is gaining
prominence, its implementation requires consideration to avoid cognitive distractions when it is combined with
VBL (Mistry, 2022; Nickl et al., 2022).
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System-wide and training barriers to VBL integration
According to Hasin and Nasir (2021) and Mohd Adnan (2025b, 2025c), Malaysian educational institutions
persistently encounter significant infrastructural limitations. These encompass unreliable internet connectivity
and inadequate hardware provision, both of which impede effective technology utilisation. Beyond technical
obstacles, educators report insufficient professional development opportunities for digital content creation and
ambiguous institutional policies governing VBL integration (Major & Watson, 2018). Despite administrative
support being critical for sustainable adoption, some schools lack dedicated resources or implementation
frameworks for VBL deployment (Ketelhut & Schifter, 2011; Owston, 2007). Effectively addressing these
challenges necessitates coordinated policy initiatives that prioritise both capacity development and
infrastructural investment.
Conceptual framework and rationale
Drawing upon the reviewed literature, this study proposes a triadic framework for understanding VBL adoption
amongst secondary school teachers (Figure 1). The framework positions pedagogical conviction as the
foundational driver, representing teachers’ beliefs about VBL’s educational value and its alignment with
contemporary learning needs. This conviction, however, operates within institutional contexts that either enable
or constrain implementation through resource availability, administrative support, and professional development
opportunities. Simultaneously, teachers’ confidence-efficacy mediate the translation of conviction into practice,
encompassing their self-assessed competence and instructional design capabilities.
The framework illustrates three critical interaction pathways. Firstly, institutional barriers can erode pedagogical
conviction when systemic constraints repeatedly prevent successful implementation, leading to resignation or
scepticism. Secondly, inadequate institutional support exacerbates confidence-efficacy gaps by denying teachers
the training and resources needed to build competence. Thirdly, low confidence-efficacy can diminish the
influence of pedagogical conviction, as teachers who believe in VBL’s value may nonetheless avoid adoption
due to anticipated implementation failures. These interactions create a dynamic system where weakness in any
dimension undermines overall adoption, whilst strength in all three dimensions creates synergistic conditions for
sustained VBL integration. This framework guided the development of research instruments and analysis of
factors shaping Malaysian secondary teachers’ VBL adoption decisions.
Figure 1. Triadic framework for VBL adoption amongst secondary school teachers
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This study addresses gaps in VBL implementation among Malaysian secondary school teachers by examining
content creation, pedagogical effectiveness, design characteristics, and implementation obstacles. Whilst
international scholarship provides theoretical foundations for VBL efficacy, data specific to the Malaysian
secondary context is limited, particularly regarding the lived experiences of teachers as both video creators and
content curators. 253 postgraduate Diploma in Education candidates were surveyed, all practising or prospective
secondary level teachers, to understand their perspectives within local classrooms. Four questions guided the
collection, analysis, and discussion:
RQ1: To what extent do Malaysian secondary teachers create original instructional videos compared to relying
on curated resources from YouTube or DELIMa?
RQ2: How effectively does VBL simplify difficult curriculum concepts and enhance visual comprehension for
Forms 1 to 5 students compared to ‘old school’ methods?
RQ3: Which VBL design elements (duration, signalling, real-world examples, age-appropriate presentation,
visual cues) most effectively maintain student attention and engagement?
RQ4: What system barriers (infrastructural, administrative support, training, workload constraints) most
significantly hinder teachers’ integration of VBL into teaching practices?
METHODOLOGY
Research design
This investigation employed a quantitative survey methodology to examine Malaysian secondary teachers’ VBL
adoption patterns, perceptions, and challenges. The cross-sectional design facilitated systematic data gathering
across varied geographical and demographic contexts, yielding a snapshot of current practices and attitudes
towards VBL implementation in secondary education.
Survey respondents
Data collection happened in 2025 involving 253 postgraduate Diploma in Education candidates enrolled at a
prominent Malaysian university. Respondents ranged in age from 26 to 43 years, with 181 identifying as female
and 72 as male. The cohort represented Malaysia’s multiethnic composition, including respondents from the two
Borneo states, thus ensuring substantial geographical representation. All of them possessed undergraduate
qualifications from public or private higher education institutions, fulfilling the mandatory entry criteria for the
postgraduate programme. Significantly, the majority were engaged in completing their practicum placements,
establishing them as student-teachers with contemporary and direct instructional experience in secondary
schools (Forms 1 to 5).
Research instrument
The web-based survey comprised 32 items structured around four research questions, employing a five-point
Likert scale extending from Strongly Disagree (1) to Strongly Agree (5). The instrument was organised into four
domains: content creation and resource ecology (RQ1, 8 items), perceived usefulness and cognitive clarity (RQ2,
7 items), effectiveness of engagement features (RQ3, 9 items), and systemic and training barriers (RQ4, 8 items).
Items were crafted to capture both behaviour (e.g., regularity of original content creation) and attitudes (e.g.,
perceived efficacy of particular design components). The instrument underwent pilot testing with 39 comparable
respondents in 2024 to verify clarity and suitability before comprehensive deployment. Following the pilot,
refinements were done to enhance item comprehensibility for future respondents.
Internal consistency reliability for each domain was evaluated using Cronbach alpha: RQ1 (alpha = 0.96), RQ2
(alpha = 0.96), RQ3 (alpha = 0.96), and RQ4 (alpha = 0.98). All domains demonstrated reliability (alpha > 0.90),
substantiating the survey’s robust internal consistency. Construct validity was assessed through exploratory
factor analysis (EFA) employing principal axis factoring with oblique rotation (Promax). The Kaiser-
MeyerOlkin measure confirmed sampling adequacy (KMO = 0.93), and Bartlett test of sphericity yielded
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significant results (chi-square = 7618.48, p < .001), validating appropriateness of factor analysis. The EFA
produced a fourfactor solution explaining 60.1% of total variance, corresponding with the instrument’s
theoretical framework. Factor loadings ranged from 0.40 to 0.86, with items demonstrating significant loadings
(> 0.40) on their designated constructs whilst exhibiting minimal cross-loadings (< 0.30).
Data analysis procedures
Descriptive statistics, encompassing means, standard deviations, and frequency distributions, were computed for
all survey items. Means are presented with 95% confidence intervals to convey estimate precision. Inferential
statistics, incorporating skewness values to evaluate distribution normality, were calculated to discern response
patterns across the domains under investigation.
Effect sizes were determined using Cohen’s d to ascertain the practical significance of deviations from the scale
midpoint (neutral = 3.0). Adhering to Cohen (1988) conventions, effect sizes were categorised as negligible (d
< 0.20), small (d = 0.20-0.49), medium (d = 0.50-0.79), large (d = 0.80-1.19), or very large (d >= 1.20). This
approach permitted evaluation of not merely statistical significance but equally the magnitude of teachers’
perceptions and attitudes. Data were analysed using SPSS Statistics (Version 29.0), with specific emphasis
placed on identifying patterns across the research queries.
Ethics and limitations
Prior to data collection, respondents were informed that participation was voluntary and informed consent was
obtained; anonymity and confidentiality were preserved. Limitations encompass dependence on self-reported
data, which may be susceptible to social desirability bias, and the particular demographic profile of the
studentteachers, whose perspectives may diverge from more experienced practitioners. Additionally, the focus
on perceptions rather than observable instructional practices constrains conclusions regarding actual VBL
implementation. Finally, it is essential to acknowledge that the cross-sectional design precludes causal inferences
concerning relationships between variables.
FINDINGS
Demographic characteristics
The investigation surveyed 253 postgraduate Diploma in Education candidates over three academic semesters.
Participants ranged in age from 26 to 43 years, with females constituting the majority (181 respondents, 71.5%)
and males comprising 72 respondents (28.5%). The cohort exhibited ethnic diversity, encompassing various
Malaysian communities including representation from Sabah and Sarawak. All participants possessed
undergraduate qualifications from Malaysian universities, satisfying the mandatory entry requirements for the
postgraduate programme. Figure 2 presents an overview of the respondents’ demographic characteristics.
Figure 2. Demographic characteristics of the survey respondents (n = 253)
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A distinguishing feature of this cohort was their dual identity as postgraduate learners and practising educators.
Most were undertaking their mandatory teaching placements in schools throughout the data collection phase,
positioning them as student-teachers possessing immediate, experiential classroom engagement. This proximity
to active instructional practice ensured their responses mirrored contemporary pedagogical circumstances rather
than detached theoretical understanding. Their concurrent exposure to university-delivered pedagogical
instruction and school-situated practical implementation rendered them exceptionally well-positioned to assess
VBL adoption behaviours, efficacy perceptions, and implementation obstacles within the present-day Malaysian
educational context.
RQ1: Teacher VBL creation and resource ecosystem
Responses revealed limited engagement with original video creation amongst secondary teachers (Figure 3).
Only 11.1% strongly agreed they create their own explainer or micro-learning videos, whilst combined
disagreement (34.0%) marginally exceeded combined agreement (38.0%), yielding a near-neutral mean of 3.04
(95% CI [2.89, 3.19], Cohen’s d = 0.03). Confidence in producing age-appropriate content for Forms 1 to 5
learners proved modestly higher (M = 3.20, 95% CI [3.06, 3.34], d = 0.18), with 32.8% agreeing they felt
confident and 9.9% strongly agreeing. Yet, substantial proportions remained neutral (31.2%) or expressed
disagreement (26.1% combined).
Figure 3. Teacher VBL content creation practices and confidence levels (Q3 and Q8)
These patterns reveal a confidence-efficacy gap wherein technical barriers, curricular pressures and time
constraints discourage systematic video production despite teachers’ subject-matter expertise. The symmetrical
distributions (skewness values of 0.02 and −0.15 respectively) suggest that hesitancy towards content creation
transcends demographic or disciplinary boundaries. If student-teachers with contemporary training express such
modest confidence, more senior teachers with ‘traditional’ professional development likely face even greater
self-efficacy challenges in the here and now.
RQ2: Perception of usefulness and pedagogical clarity
The teachers in the survey demonstrated conviction regarding VBL’s pedagogical effectiveness for secondary
learners (Figure 4). Visual representations’ capacity to enhance comprehension of abstract concepts received
exceptional endorsement (M = 4.23, 95% CI [4.14, 4.32], d = 1.71), with 87.3% combined agreement and
pronounced negative skewness (−1.05). Similarly, teachers strongly endorsed VBL’s effectiveness in addressing
diverse learning abilities and styles within mixed-ability classrooms (M = 3.98, 95% CI [3.88, 4.08], d = 1.20),
with 77.9% combined agreement and negative skewness (−0.79). These large effect sizes indicate that teachers
perceive VBL as genuinely transformative rather than marginally beneficial.
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Figure 4. Perceived pedagogical effectiveness of VBL for secondary students (Q13 and Q16)
These teachers evidently recognise that visual elements such as animations, diagrams and illustrative examples
provide Forms 1 to 5 students with cognitive scaffolding that verbal explanations alone cannot achieve, whilst
simultaneously enabling self-paced learning, permitting content review and providing multiple representational
formats. This proves valuable for abstract mathematical, scientific or theoretical contents requiring visual
expression, and for accommodating considerable variations in prior knowledge, language proficiency and
learning preferences typical of Malaysian secondary classrooms.
RQ3: Success of engagement features for secondary students
Further, they endorsed specific design elements as crucial for maintaining secondary students’ attention and
engagement (Figure 5). Brief video durations (three to five minutes) received strong consensus (M = 3.98, 95%
CI [3.87, 4.09], d = 1.10), with 77.0% combined agreement and negative skewness (−0.88), reflecting practical
wisdom that adolescents require frequent instructional format changes despite possessing better cognitive
maturity than primary-aged children. Age-appropriate contents and relevant examples garnered even stronger
endorsement (M = 4.27, 95% CI [4.18, 4.36], d = 1.79), representing the investigation’s highest score, with
88.2% agreement and pronounced negative skewness (−1.08). These large effect sizes confirm that the teachers
view both brevity and developmental appropriateness as genuinely consequential rather than merely preferable.
Figure 5. Critical design elements for secondary student engagement (Q19 and Q24)
They evidently recognise that pedagogically sound video design must extend beyond content accuracy to
encompass contextual relevance for teenage students, acknowledging their emerging abstract reasoning
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capabilities whilst respecting developmental characteristics and cultural backgrounds. This challenges the notion
that generic educational videos can engage Forms 1 to 5 students if examples, language register or presentational
style prove quite mismatched with adolescent cognitive and social-emotional development.
RQ4: Institutional and training hurdles to VBL integration
Systemic barriers emerged as critical obstacles to VBL integration (Figure 6). Training deficits constituted a
substantial impediment, with 73.5% of respondents agreeing that insufficient professional development in rapid
video creation and pedagogically sound VBL design limits their capacity (M = 3.88, 95% CI [3.77, 3.99], d =
0.95). Time constraints and demanding workloads proved more acute (M = 3.99, 95% CI [3.88, 4.10], d = 1.14),
with 77.8% agreement. Both domains demonstrated negative skewness (−0.71 and −0.76 respectively) and large
effect sizes, emphasising magnitude and consensus.
These findings prove noteworthy given that the respondents were mostly postgraduate candidates actively
receiving pedagogical training; if they report inadequate preparation, senior teachers likely face greater gaps.
The former requires specific technical and pedagogical guidance addressing rapid content creation workflows
suitable for time-pressed practitioners, age-appropriate design principles and practical strategies for integrating
videos into the secondary curriculum. The tension between institutional rhetoric emphasising digital learning
and teachers’ capacity to engage meaningfully with VBL remains constrained by workload pressures, extensive
curriculum coverage requirements, examination preparation demands (particularly for the secondary
schoolleaving examination or SPM), co-curricular responsibilities and administrative duties. Addressing this
necessitates coordinated interventions including readjusted teacher workload allocations and dedicated time for
digital resource development.
Figure 6. Systemic barriers to wider VBL integration in secondary schools (Q29 and Q32)
DISCUSSION
This empirical effort examined VBL adoption amongst 253 Malaysian secondary teacher-candidates, revealing
insights into content creation practices, pedagogical perceptions, design priorities, and also implementation
barriers. The findings illuminate both opportunities and constraints shaping VBL integration within Forms 1 to
5 classrooms (Figure 7).
Theoretical integration: TAM and CLT as explanatory frameworks
Findings demonstrate alignment with established theoretical frameworks, particularly the Technology
Acceptance Model and Cognitive Load Theory, whilst also revealing contextual factors that extend these models
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within Malaysian secondary education. TAM posits that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use
determine technology adoption intentions (Granić & Marangunić, 2019). The present data confirm TAM’s
predictive validity with the teachers’ endorsement of VBL’s pedagogical effectiveness (RQ2 findings)
representing high perceived usefulness, yet modest content creation engagement (RQ1 findings) reflects low
perceived ease of use.
This misalignment creates the confidence-efficacy gap observed. Simultaneously, the teachers’ design
preferences validate CLT principles with their endorsement of brief durations (M = 3.98, d = 1.10) and visual
scaffolding (M = 4.23, d = 1.71) directly aligning with CLT’s emphasis on managing cognitive load through
concise, multimodal presentations that reduce extraneous processing demands whilst optimising germane
cognitive load for schema construction (Costley et al., 2021; Faber et al., 2024). However, the findings equally
reveal that system-wide barriers (training deficits and workload constraints) moderate TAM’s predictive
pathways, suggesting that institutional context mediates the relationship between perceived usefulness and actual
adoption.
‘Confidence-efficacy gap’ in content creation
Despite encouragement of digital innovation, the teachers demonstrated limited engagement with original video
production. The near-neutral response (M = 3.04) and negligible effect size (d = 0.03) regarding content creation,
coupled with modest confidence levels (M = 3.20, d = 0.18), reveal a confidence-efficacy gap that validates
TAM’s perceived ease of use construct. Perceived ease of use functions as a critical determinant of technology
adoption intentions; when users perceive technologies as demanding excessive effort, adoption falters regardless
of perceived usefulness (Granić & Marangunić, 2019).
The present findings exemplify this dynamic as the teachers recognise VBL’s pedagogical value yet avoid
content creation owing to anticipated difficulties. This pattern suggests that technical barriers and self-efficacy
concerns outweigh teachers’ subject-matter expertise advantages. Notably, even student-teachers with updated
pedagogical training expressed uncertainty, indicating that technology integration courses prove insufficient for
developing video production competencies specific to teenagers. This gap aligns with research by Tembrevilla
and Milner-Bolotin (2025) documenting Southeast Asian teachers’ reliance on external resources, though the
present data reveal that secondary teachers’ hesitancy stems less from content availability than from confidence
deficits and workload pressures. Certainly, pedagogical convictions alone cannot drive adoption, and without
addressing perceived ease of use through targeted training and systemic support, VBL integration remains merely
aspirational.
Figure 7. Empirical findings on the deployment of VBL by secondary school teachers Strong pedagogical
endorsement despite implementation constraints.
Paradoxically, whilst the teachers showed limited content creation engagement, they expressed conviction
regarding VBL’s pedagogical value. Visual representations received exceptional endorsement (M = 4.23, d =
1.71), whilst age-appropriate presentation garnered the investigation’s largest effect (M = 4.27, d = 1.79). These
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findings validate TAM’s prediction that perceived usefulness constitutes a primary adoption driver, yet
simultaneously expose its limitations. They clearly recognise VBL’s capacity to enhance comprehension,
accommodate diverse learners (d = 1.20) and sustain attention through brief, focused segments (d = 1.10). Their
design preferences equally validate CLT principles, particularly regarding cognitive load management. CLT
posits that effective instruction minimises extraneous cognitive load (irrelevant processing) whilst optimising
germane cognitive load (schema) through representational formats (Costley et al., 2021; Faber et al., 2024). The
teachers’ endorsement of brief durations directly reflects CLT’s emphasis on preventing cognitive overload,
whilst their valuation of visual scaffolding aligns with the dual-coding principle that multimodal presentations
enhance schema formation more effectively than unimodal ones.
The disconnect between pedagogical conviction (high perceived usefulness) and implementation practice (low
perceived ease of use) reveals that adoption barriers are systemic rather than attitudinal. The teachers understand
VBL’s affordances, yet lack the infrastructural support, dedicated time and targeted training.
Systemic barriers requiring coordinated interventions
Time constraints (M = 3.99, d = 1.14) and training deficits (M = 3.88, d = 0.95) emerged as substantial obstacles,
with effect sizes indicating large practical significance. These system-wide barriers function as moderating
variables within TAM’s predictive pathways, constraining the relationship between perceived usefulness and
adoption intentions. Malaysian secondary teachers do face acute workload pressures from curriculum demands,
examination responsibilities (particularly SPM requirements) and administrative duties that constrain capacity
for resource development. These constraints nullify high perceived usefulness as the teachers recognise VBL’s
pedagogical value yet cannot allocate time for it. Similarly, inadequate professional development suppresses
perceived ease of use by denying teachers the technical competencies and pedagogical strategies necessary for
confident VBL integration.
Addressing these barriers necessitates coordinated policy responses that acknowledge technology adoption as an
institutionally situated process rather than an individual decision. The triadic framework proposed earlier (Figure
1) captures this complexity where pedagogical conviction (perceived usefulness), confidence-efficacy
(perceived ease of use) and institutional barriers function as interdependent determinants of VBL adoption.
Without coordinated interventions addressing these dimensions, the confidence-efficacy gap will persist, and
VBL’s recognised pedagogical advantages will remain largely unrealised in Malaysian secondary classrooms.
CONCLUSION
This empirical research effort reveals a paradox within Malaysian secondary education that whilst teachers
overwhelmingly recognise VBL’s transformative pedagogical potential for Forms 1 to 5 learners, system-wide
constraints prevent meaningful implementation. The exceptionally large effect sizes for visual representations
(d = 1.71) and age-appropriate presentation (d = 1.79) demonstrate that the teachers in this study view videobased
approaches as substantially more effective than traditional methods for enhancing comprehension,
accommodating diverse abilities and sustaining adolescent attention. Yet their conviction remains largely
unrealised owing to inadequate professional development, workload pressures and self-efficacy deficits. The
confidence-efficacy gap documented exposes the current misalignment between institutional rhetoric and
systemic realities.
Addressing this paradox demands coordinated interventions. Firstly, the Ministry of Education should mandate
subject-specific VBL professional development workshops acknowledging secondary education’s distinctive
demands. Mathematics teachers require guidance on visualising algebraic functions, whilst science teachers need
training in demonstrating laboratory procedures through video. Workshops should emphasise rapid content
creation using accessible tools (e.g., Canva, CapCut), focusing on three-to-five-minute formats aligned with
cognitive load principles, delivered through face-to-face sessions with ongoing mentoring. Secondly, the
DELIMa platform should be enhanced with dedicated VBL professional modules featuring micro-credentialing
systems. These should progress from foundational skills (curating materials) through intermediate skills
(adapting videos) to advanced skills (creating contents). Thirdly, workload restructuring proves essential. Time
constraints (d = 1.14) constitute the most substantial barrier; ‘free’ weekly periods specifically for resource
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development must be mandated. Subject-specific VBL development teams should also receive administrative
recognition through reduced clerical-work responsibilities. Lastly, infrastructure investments must include
dedicated video production spaces with basic equipment (ring lights, tripods, microphones), technical support
and reliable connectivity, particularly in rural contexts.
These empirically grounded recommendations address the confidence-efficacy gap through coordinated
interventions. Malaysian educational authorities must move beyond aspirational rhetoric towards concrete,
resourced actions that simultaneously build teacher capacity, restructure workload expectations and strengthen
institutional support. In truth, secondary students navigating complex curriculum content require multimodal
instructional approaches. Ultimately, this study demonstrates that teachers understand these imperatives yet lack
the capacity to respond. Realising VBL’s potential necessitates system-wide transformation, not merely
individual teacher initiative.
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