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ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XXVI November 2025 | Special Issue on Education
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A Conceptual Framework for Understanding Speaking Anxiety
Among Malaysian Undergraduate Students in English-Medium
Contexts
Nur Aqilah Norwahi*, Mohd Amirul Atan
Academy of Language Studies, University Technology MARA (UiTM), Cawangan Melaka (Kampus
Jasin), Melaka, Malaysia
*Corresponding Author
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.903SEDU0721
Received: 10 November 2025; Accepted: 20 November 2025; Published: 05 December 2025
ABSTRACT
In Malaysia, most tertiary education institutions strongly promote the use of English as the primary medium of
interaction between students and educators, both inside and outside the classroom. Nevertheless, speaking
anxiety remains a persistent challenge among Malaysian undergraduates, particularly within English-medium
higher education settings. Despite the nation’s long-standing emphasis on English language education, many
students continue to experience apprehension during oral communication tasks, which in turn affects their
academic performance, classroom participation, and future employability. This conceptual paper draws on
theories from second language acquisition, communication studies, and sociocultural linguistics to present a
holistic framework that captures the antecedents, mediators, and consequences of speaking anxiety among
Malaysian undergraduates. Four interrelated domains—linguistic, psychological, pedagogical, and
sociocultural—are synthesised to illustrate how these factors shape students’ willingness to communicate and
their overall oral performance. The paper concludes with theoretical propositions to guide future empirical
research, alongside practical implications for educators, curriculum designers, and policymakers. This
conceptual contribution is positioned to support future research paper submissions within applied linguistics,
communication, and higher education journals.
Keywords: speaking anxiety, Malaysian undergraduates, English-medium higher education, second language
acquisition, sociocultural linguistics,
INTRODUCTION
Malaysia’s multilingual landscape positions English as a crucial linguistic resource for academic success and
socioeconomic mobility. Universities increasingly operate under English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI)
policies, requiring students to engage in oral presentations, discussions, and group projects in English (Gill,
2014). However, many undergraduates still demonstrate reluctance to speak English; citing anxiety, fear of
judgment, and perceived inadequacy as the main reasons hindering them from using the language freely
(Ramasamy, 2020). Speaking anxiety which commonly is understood as the tension and apprehension related
to oral communication, poses challenges not only for academic performance but also for employability, as
employers regard spoken English proficiency as a key skill when interviewing their future employees (Shah et
al., 2016).
Research on Malaysian learners’ speaking anxiety has expanded in recent years, but findings are dispersed
across separate domains. Linguistic-focused studies highlight how limited vocabulary, grammar difficulties,
and pronunciation concerns heighten anxiety (Tie, 2020; Abdullah & Abdul Rahman, 2018). Psychological
perspectives point to low self-efficacy, negative self-beliefs, and reduced confidence as major contributors to
speaking apprehension (Miskam & Saidalvi, 2018; Leong & Ahmadi, 2017). Pedagogical investigations
emphasise the role of teacher feedback, assessment design, and classroom climate in shaping students’
willingness to participate (Yassin, Razak & Maasum, 2019; Tan et al., 2022). Meanwhile, sociocultural studies
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XXVI November 2025 | Special Issue on Education
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Page 9499
reveal how face-saving norms, accent stigma, fear of negative evaluation, and gendered communication
expectations shape undergraduates’ comfort when using English (Suparia et al., 2022; Khamis, Yunus &
Mansor, 2024).
Despite these valuable insights, the literature remains largely compartmentalised. Existing studies tend to
isolate linguistic, psychological, pedagogical, or sociocultural factors, limiting understanding of how these
dimensions interact to shape speaking anxiety. Addressing this gap, the present conceptual paper synthesises
perspectives from second language acquisition, communication studies, and sociocultural linguistics to
propose an integrated framework. The model illustrates how multiple domains collectively influence
Malaysian undergraduates’ speaking anxiety and offers a foundation for more holistic future empirical
research.
Problem Statement
Despite at least 11 years of formal English education beginning in primary schools at 7 years old until the
completion secondary school at the age of 17, Malaysian undergraduates frequently struggle with oral
communication. Several issues persist:
1. Mismatch between proficiency and expectations: Lee (2018) identifies a significant gap between
Malaysian undergraduates’ measured English proficiency and the communicative demands they face in
academic settings. While many students demonstrate adequate comprehension of complex written texts,
this receptive competence does not reliably extend to spontaneous oral production. In unscripted
speaking situations—such as class discussions, impromptu presentations, or peer interactions—students
often struggle to retrieve appropriate vocabulary, organise coherent ideas, and maintain fluency under
pressure. These difficulties align with findings by Abdullah, Netra, and Hassan (2024), who observed
that undergraduates in Malaysia face persistent problems in public speaking due to limited vocabulary,
grammatical weaknesses, pronunciation issues, and low confidence. Furthermore, Zamri and Hashim
(2024) showed that speaking anxiety among English-major undergraduates is significantly correlated
with their overall English proficiency, suggesting that affective factors (such as self-confidence and
perceived competence) also play a critical role in shaping oral communicative performance. These
studies suggest that improving English proficiency among Malaysian undergraduates requires not only
strengthening linguistic knowledge but also addressing psychological barriers and building more
opportunities for real-time productive use of English.
2. High communication apprehension: Malaysian learners are reported to experience some of the highest
rates of foreign language anxiety in Asia (Marwan, 2016). In particular, many students report significant
speaking anxiety when required to use English, which can inhibit their performance and participation.
For example, Miskam and Saidalvi (2019) found that Malaysian undergraduates exhibited moderate
levels of English-speaking anxiety when measured with the Foreign Language Speaking Anxiety Scale
(FLSAS), suggesting that fear of negative evaluation and self-perceived limited competence are real
barriers to oral communication. More recently, Ahmad and Awang Hashim (2023) reported a similarly
moderate but pervasive level of speaking-specific anxiety among 298 Malaysian undergraduates, with
students identifying their own perceived lack of language competence as the strongest predictor of
anxiety. These findings further support Marwan’s (2016) claim and highlight how anxiety continues to be
a major issue in Malaysian higher education, particularly around productive oral skills.
3. Societal perceptions of “good English”: Malaysian students frequently internalise a native-accent ideal,
often equating native-like English with prestige, correctness, and social advantage—a phenomenon that
Rajadurai (2017) links directly to issues of identity and insecurity. Rajadurai argues that many Malaysian
learners feel they must approximate British or American accents to be seen as competent, contributing to
a deep sense of linguistic insecurity. This pressure is not confined to the classroom. In the workplace,
Abu Bakar and Hashim (2023) found that many Malaysian employees believe they must modify their
natural accent where they often suppressing their Malaysian-accented English in professional contexts to
be perceived as more competent or credible. At the same time, however, tensions remain. Tan, Lee,
Kasuma, and Ganapathy (2018) report that while many undergraduates value their local-accented
Malaysian English and recognise its functional importance, they nonetheless regard it as “substandard”
compared to native varieties. This discrepancy suggests a persistent ideological hierarchy: local accents
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XXVI November 2025 | Special Issue on Education
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are accepted for day-to-day use, but are judged inadequate for the “ideal” of nativeness. In short, these
show how societal perceptions of “good English” in Malaysia are deeply tied to accent bias, perpetuating
anxiety, identity challenges, and pronunciation practices aligned more with native standards than with
local linguistic realities.
4. Inconsistent classroom practices: Inconsistent classroom practices also play a substantial role in
heightening learners’ speaking anxiety. Suleiman (2021) notes that certain pedagogical routines—such as
inflexible presentation formats, teacher-dominated turn-taking, and performance-oriented assessments—
can unintentionally intensify students’ fear of being evaluated. When learners feel compelled to follow
rigid structures or deliver “perfect” presentations, their cognitive load increases, reducing their ability to
speak spontaneously and confidently. Similar concerns are echoed in Hassan and Yamat’s (2020) study,
which found that Malaysian undergraduates experienced heightened anxiety when classroom tasks
prioritised accuracy over communicative meaning, leading students to over-focus on grammatical
correctness at the expense of fluency. Likewise, Aisyah (2018) reported that classroom environments
characterised by strict teacher control and limited peer interaction tended to suppress student
participation, with learners expressing fear of making mistakes in front of both teachers and classmates.
Hence, it is indicated that classroom practices significantly shape learners’ emotional response to
speaking tasks. Pedagogical designs that emphasise flexibility, peer collaboration, and process-based
speaking are therefore more likely to reduce anxiety and support oral communicative development.
Purpose of the Conceptual Paper
Existing research tends to be fragmented, lacking an integrative model that connects linguistic competence,
self-beliefs, EMI classroom dynamics, and cultural expectations. Therefore, this conceptual paper aims to:
1. Review theoretical and empirical literature on speaking anxiety.
2. Identify the major domains influencing Malaysian undergraduates’ oral communication anxiety.
3. Develop a conceptual framework integrating these domains.
4. Propose testable propositions to guide future research.
Theoretical Foundations
Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Theory (Horwitz et al., 1986)
Horwitz and colleagues define language anxiety as a situation-specific anxiety arising from foreign language
learning. Key components include communication apprehension, test anxiety, and fear of negative evaluation.
This theory is foundational for understanding the emotional dimension of speaking anxiety.
Communication Apprehension Theory (McCroskey, 1984)
Communication apprehension refers to fear or anxiety associated with real or anticipated communication.
McCroskey distinguishes between trait apprehension, context-specific apprehension, audience-based
apprehension, and situational apprehension. This theory helps explain why students may speak comfortably
with peers but freeze during presentations.
Self-Efficacy Theory (Bandura, 1997)
Self-efficacy is one’s belief in their ability to perform a task. In oral communication, higher speaking self-
efficacy reduces anxiety and increases participation (Woodrow, 2011). Malaysian studies also show that self-
efficacy predicts willingness to speak (Zulkifli, 2020).
Krashen’s Affective Filter Hypothesis (1982)
Anxiety, low motivation, and lack of confidence raise the “affective filter,” blocking language acquisition.
Speaking anxiety thus not only affects performance but also long-term learning outcomes.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
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Sociocultural Theory (Vygotsky, 1978)
Speaking is socially mediated. Students’ identities, peer relationships, and societal norms shape their
confidence and communicative behaviour. In Malaysia, linguistic expectations and “accent prestige” norms
heavily influence students’ willingness to speak.
Key Domains Influencing Speaking Anxiety
Linguistic Factors
Linguistic challenges such as limited vocabulary, pronunciation difficulties, and grammar concerns often
trigger anxiety (Ting & Phan, 2008). Malaysian learners commonly feel insecure about sounding “incorrect” or
“not fluent enough” (Rajadurai, 2017). Learners’ speaking difficulties often stem from a combination of
linguistic and contextual factors that constrain their ability to communicate effectively. A limited lexical
repertoire frequently restricts students’ capacity to express clear ideas, forcing them to rely on repetitive
vocabulary or simplified structures, which further undermines confidence during spontaneous speech.
Moreover, pronunciation and accent concerns compound these challenges, as learners may fear negative
evaluation or feel their accent is “inferior,” resulting in heightened self-monitoring and reduced fluency. In
addition, many students develop a fixation on grammatical accuracy, prioritising error-free production over
communicative meaning. These often interrupt speech flow and increases anxiety, particularly in performance-
oriented tasks. Other than that, there are also a lack of real-life speaking opportunities, with many classrooms
offering limited chances for authentic interaction beyond rehearsed presentations or controlled practice. These
elements create a communicative environment in which learners struggle to speak confidently and
spontaneously, reinforcing the cycle of anxiety and limited oral proficiency.
Psychological Factors
Internal emotional and cognitive processes play a crucial role in shaping students’ experiences of speaking
anxiety. Central to these processes is self-efficacy, defined by Bandura (1997) as individuals’ beliefs in their
ability to perform specific tasks whereby students with low linguistic self-efficacy often anticipate failure
before speaking, which heightens anxiety and reduces engagement. In addition, perfectionism further
intensifies this response, as students who strive for flawless performance tend to fixate on potential errors,
diverting cognitive resources away from real-time communication. Fear of negative evaluation similarly
contributes to anxiety, with learners worrying about how peers, teachers, or evaluators may judge their
language ability. These concerns are frequently reinforced by past speaking failures, which can create
emotional imprints that shape future expectations and avoidance behaviours. These factors influence students’
willingness to communicate, often lowering their readiness to initiate or participate in oral interactions. Thus,
students with low self-confidence are more likely to avoid speaking tasks, perpetuating a cycle of silence and
anxiety.
Pedagogical and Classroom Factors
Classroom climate exerts a significant influence on learners’ speaking anxiety, either solving or worsening it
depending on the learning environment (Woodrow, 2011). Teacher behaviour is a central factor: supportive,
encouraging instructors tend to foster confidence and reduce apprehension, whereas intimidating or overly
critical behaviour can heighten anxiety. Peer interaction norms also shape emotional responses, as
collaborative and non-judgmental interactions create safer spaces for practice, while competitive or evaluative
peer dynamics can increase fear of negative evaluation. The style of assessment further affects anxiety levels,
with high-stakes speaking tasks often provoking tension, whereas low-stakes, formative tasks allow learners to
experiment and build confidence. Various Malaysian studies show that supportive lecturers significantly
reduce anxiety (Ramasamy, 2020). Thus, effective instructional scaffolding, such as modelling language use,
guiding planning, or providing structured prompts, helps learners manage cognitive load and reduces the
pressure of real-time speaking. Additionally, ample opportunities for rehearsal, including repeated practice in
supportive contexts, enable learners to consolidate skills and gradually overcome performance-related stress.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
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In conclusion, these classroom factors interact to shape whether learners experience speaking activities as
threatening or empowering.
Sociocultural Factors
Malaysia’s multilingual context and entrenched accent hierarchies significantly shape learners’ self-perception
and experiences of speaking anxiety. Social pressure to speak “good English,” often defined in terms of native-
like pronunciation and grammar, can create intense fear of losing face, particularly in public or formal settings.
This causes students to be acutely aware of potential judgement from peers, which reinforces self-monitoring
and hesitancy during oral communication. These pressures are further compounded by urban–rural disparities
in English exposure, as students from rural areas often have fewer opportunities to interact with proficient
speakers, limiting both linguistic competence and confidence. Underlying these dynamics are pervasive
ideologies of native-speakerism, which elevate native-like English as the ideal standard while devaluing local-
accented varieties. These pressures heighten fear of making mistakes, particularly in public speaking contexts.
Hence, these societal and linguistic factors contribute to heightened anxiety and a sense of inadequacy among
Malaysian learners in English-speaking contexts.
PROPOSED CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
The core relationships include:
1. Linguistic competence, psychological traits, pedagogical practices, and sociocultural expectations interact
to shape speaking anxiety.
2. Self-efficacy, fear of negative evaluation, and perceived peer support operate as mediators.
3. Classroom climate, lecturer support, and prior speaking experiences serve as moderators.
4. Speaking anxiety influences willingness to communicate and oral performance.
Propositions For Future Research
1. Linguistic competence negatively predicts speaking anxiety among Malaysian undergraduates.
2. Fear of negative evaluation mediates the relationship between linguistic competence and speaking anxiety.
3. Speaking self-efficacy negatively predicts speaking anxiety regardless of proficiency level.
4. Supportive classroom climate moderates the relationship between speaking anxiety and oral performance.
5. Sociocultural pressure for native-like English use positively predicts speaking anxiety.
6. Speaking anxiety negatively predicts willingness to communicate in English.
7. Students with negative prior speaking experiences exhibit stronger links between fear of evaluation and
anxiety.
Implications
Teachers play a pivotal role in mitigating speaking anxiety by creating supportive and low-pressure learning
environments. Incorporating low-stakes speaking activities, such as brief pair discussions or informal
presentations, allows learners to practice without fear of harsh evaluation, gradually building confidence
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
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(Woodrow, 2011; Suleiman, 2021). Constructive, non-threatening feedback that highlights strengths while
gently addressing errors encourages risk-taking and reduces the fear of negative evaluation. Additionally,
scaffolding techniques—such as modelling target language use, structured prompts, and group rehearsals—
help learners organise ideas and manage cognitive load, fostering more fluent and confident oral performance
(Bandura, 1997; Hassan & Yamat, 2020).
Next, curriculum design can further support speaking proficiency by integrating communication skills modules
across disciplines, ensuring that learners engage in oral practice beyond language-specific courses.
Establishing dedicated language support units, such as conversation labs, coaching sessions, or peer-led
discussion groups, provides structured opportunities for rehearsal and personalised guidance (Ahmad &
Awang Hashim, 2023). Such initiatives not only reinforce linguistic competence but also promote learner
autonomy and reduce anxiety by normalising mistakes as part of the learning process.
Lastly, at the policy level, aligning English-medium instruction (EMI) policies with student readiness is crucial
to prevent undue stress and speaking anxiety. Policymakers should consider phased or scaffolded EMI
approaches that account for learners’ existing proficiency levels and provide targeted support where needed
(Rajadurai, 2017). Interventions addressing rural–urban disparities in English exposure—such as resource
allocation for under-served schools, teacher training, and access to language technology—can help ensure
equitable opportunities for oral development, reducing systemic barriers that contribute to anxiety and limited
communicative competence.
CONCLUSION
Speaking anxiety among Malaysian undergraduates is a multidimensional issue shaped by linguistic,
psychological, pedagogical, and sociocultural factors. By integrating these domains, the conceptual framework
presented in this paper offers a holistic understanding of the conditions that promote or hinder oral
communication in English. Future empirical studies can adopt this model to design more targeted interventions
that reduce anxiety and enhance communicative competence.
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