INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XII December 2025  
Building and Applying the Reckless Thinking Scale among Students  
of the Faculties of Education for Humanities and Pure Sciences  
Researcher: Dr. Mohammed Hashim Taha Sulaiman Al-Ogaidi*  
*Department of Educational and Psychological Sciences - Faculty of Education for Humanities -  
University of Mosul  
DOI: https://doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.91200015  
Received: 11 December 2025; Accepted: 18 December 2025; Published: 30 December 2025  
ABSTRACT  
The research aimed to design, construct, and apply the Reckless Thinking Scale among students of the Faculties  
of Education for Humanities and Pure Sciences.  
The sample consisted of (400) male and female students, selected by a stratified random method with equal  
distribution, from all academic stages of the Faculties of Education for Humanities and Pure Sciences, and to  
measure healthy thinking, a scale was built based on theoretical bridging (synthesis method), which consisted of  
(24) items.  
The psychometric characteristics of the scale were extracted, including apparent honesty, which reached 95%,  
as well as the coefficient of consistency by the repeat method (0.83). The statistical techniques used were those  
provided by the Social Statistical Package (SPSS).  
The results showed that the arithmetic average of the students' score was 58.22 with a standard deviation of  
10.39, and when comparing the arithmetic mean of the students' score with the hypothetical average of  
performance (60) using the T scale for one sample, it was found that the calculated T value is equal to (3.24)  
which is greater than the tabular T value (1.96) at the significance level of (0.05) and the degree of freedom  
(399). This indicates a statistically significant difference, suggesting that the level of reckless thinking among  
students of the faculties of education for the humanities and pure sciences is lower than the hypothetical mean  
adopted in the study.  
One of the most important conclusions is that societal values play a key role in curbing reckless thinking by  
strengthening external controls. One of the most important recommendations is to build family awareness  
programs: train families to support students' decision-making skills without curbing creativity, based on the  
theory of containment.  
Panama has included field studies to measure impulsivity levels using tools such as the Whiteside & Lynam  
Scale to understand whether the absence of impulsive thinking is due to social repression or adaptive skills.  
INTRODUCTION  
A lot of researchers have been trying to figure out why kids make bad choices for a long time. Students at college  
are more likely to feel this way since they are stressed out about both their schoolwork and their personal lives.  
Experimental examinations of these patterns demonstrate the significance of psychological research in  
mitigating the adverse impact of these judgments. They help us understand where they come from and how to  
find ways to make cognitive resilience better. (Smith, 2020: 14)  
Impulsivity, or acting without thinking, has an effect on how decisions are made. This is due to both neurological  
and environmental factors. Neuroimaging studies demonstrate that inhibition is impaired during adolescence  
owing to the prolonged development of the prefrontal cortex, hence increasing impulsivity and recklessness.  
When students are independent and under peer pressure at university, they often put off their schoolwork and  
engage in other risky, impulsive behaviors. Research indicates that psychological interventions such as  
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mindfulness programs and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) can be advantageous for individuals struggling  
with self-regulation. This is a great example of how scientific research can benefit those who have problems  
with this. (Johnson & Lee, 2019: 23)  
The dominant social and cultural environments, together with neurodevelopmental processes, influence  
adolescents' inclination towards risk-taking behaviors. Steinberg's 2008 dual-systems theory highlights the  
difference between increased reward sensitivity and immature cognitive control in adolescence, a trend that  
continues throughout early adulthood. Universities are like little societies where people try out new ideas and  
methods of doing things. As a result, cheating and smoking are common. These findings have prompted  
numerous educational initiatives, including lectures, workshops conducted by faculty and students, and  
experiential learning modules, all designed to transform students' perceptions of risk and instruct them on the  
influence of scientific information on their behavior. (Steinberg, 2008: 78)  
Not being able to plan is a systemic problem, not just a human flaw in planning. Some long-term studies  
demonstrate that children who don't know how to plan, organize, and manage their time efficiently are more  
likely to be stressed out all the time and do worse in school. This, in turn, makes things worse and worse.  
Integrating scientifically and empirically validated remedies into academic frameworks has the potential to  
address core issues rather than only superficial symptoms. Research supports institutional support measures,  
such as mandatory time management training, AI-driven planning tools, and supplementary activities. (Martinez  
et al., 2021: 45)  
When we're fatigued, we tend to make decisions without thinking them through first. This indicates that intuitive  
thinking holds greater significance than rational thought. Kahneman's 2011 study on decision-making  
frameworks is important because it shows how mental or temporal constraints can make people rely more on  
heuristics, or System 1. This can cause people to make hasty and sometimes incorrect decisions at work or  
school. Some schools have used these findings to set up decision-making labs and teach students how to think  
about their own thinking so they can get better at analyzing things and uncover and cure cognitive biases (System  
2). These works show that strong theoretical research can lead to new ways of teaching. (Kahneman 2011: 102)  
Defining Terms  
Theoretical definition of reckless thinking: "A cognitive mental process characterized by the dominance of  
intuitive processing over careful analytical thinking or consideration of consequences, and making hasty  
decisions in light of that processing, leading to ignoring potential risks and a tendency to act without planning  
and a full understanding of the consequences of actions."  
Theoretical Framework  
The Deferred Gratification Model (Michel et al., 1972)  
Walter Mischel's "marshmallow test" illustrates that individuals frequently achieve better life results by  
postponing immediate gratification in exchange for more substantial future benefits. This idea connects being  
impulsive to not being able to control one's urges and think about the future. Students who have trouble waiting  
for rewards may put their social lives ahead of their schoolwork, which could affect their GPA. Cognitive tactics,  
such as reappraisal (seeing the reward as less appealing) or distraction (focusing on long-term goals), affect the  
capacity to endure delays. Mischel's research highlights the importance of executive function in reducing  
impulsive thinking by linking current behaviors to their future outcomes. (Mischel et al., 1972: 206)  
UPPS-P Model of Impulsivity (Whiteside & Nam, 2001)  
The UPPS-P model divides impulsivity into five distinct dimensions:  
A- Negative urgency: acting recklessly under the weight of distress (e.g., using drugs during stress).  
B- Lack of advance planning: failure to consider consequences before acting (e.g., impulsive buying).  
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C- Lack of perseverance: The inability to focus on tasks (e.g., abandonment of long-term projects).  
D- Thrill Seeking: Seeking new or exciting experiences (e.g., extreme sports).  
E- Positive urgency: impulsive actions in positive moods (e.g., overspending when happy).  
This model highlights that impulsive thinking is not a homogeneous trait, but rather a combination of emotional,  
cognitive, and motivational factors. For example, a student who exhibits (lack of advance planning) may miss  
classes without considering academic sanctions, while *excitement-seeking* may lead to risky social behaviors.  
The UPPS-P framework is widely used to design interventions that target specific subtypes of impulsivity.  
(Whiteside & Lynam, 2001: 672)  
Dual Pathway Model for ADHD (Sonoga-Park, 2002)  
The dual-pathway model (DPM) identifies executive dysfunction and delay aversion as two neural pathways  
that influence impulsivity and impulsive decision-making characteristics. The primary pathway is executive  
dysfunction. It happens when the prefrontal brain activity and cognitive control go down, which makes it hard  
to plan and stop yourself from doing things. The second strategy, known as delay aversion, is effective due to  
the heightened activity of individuals' reward systems, particularly the medial limbic circuit. This makes people  
look for quick pleasure to avoid the pain of waiting. Instead of studying, students who don't want to wait could  
prefer to do activities that make them happy right away, such using social media. Conversely, students with  
executive dysfunction may procrastinate on their assignments due to inadequate planning. The dual-pathway  
method greatly improves the diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and is equally  
applicable to impulsive thinking in situations that necessitate self-regulation and control. (Sonuga-Barke, 2002:  
30)  
Dual System Theory (Kahneman, 2011)  
Kahneman states that System I is quick, instinctive, and based on feelings, whereas System II is more logical,  
methodical, and analytical. My approach is autonomous and depends on inferences, a concept Kahneman  
describes as "cognitive ease." This makes it easy to be biased, like thinking that short-term gains are better than  
they are. System II needs you to think about things on purpose, but it uses mental effort to process information.  
People think on the spur of the moment when System I takes over. For instance, students can choose to watch  
too much TV or use social media instead of studying for tests. System II considers the enduring consequences  
of examination dishonesty, such as academic sanctions, whereas System I focuses on immediate stress  
alleviation. This strategy stresses how important metacognitive tactics are for getting System II to work in high-  
pressure situations. (Kahneman, 2011: 20)  
Research Methodology  
The research aims to describe the measurement of reckless thinking among students of the faculties of education  
for the humanities and pure sciences. Accordingly, a descriptive research design was adopted, as it is appropriate  
for scale construction and psychometric validation. This design represents a foundational step that may inform  
future experimental or inferential studies based on the outcomes of the present research.  
Research Community  
The current research population consists of (10045) male and female students from the College of Education for  
Humanities and Pure Sciences for the morning study and for the academic year (2024-2025). (7208) male and  
female students from the College of Education for Humanities, and (2837) male and female students from the  
College of Education for Pure Sciences. A stratified random sample of 400 was drawn from it.  
The researcher obtained this statistic from the Studies, Planning and Follow-up Division at the Presidency of the University  
of Mosul under the task facilitation book No. 3/2/12522 dated 7/11/2024.  
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Research Tool  
The tool is the means by which information is collected, and similar to the sister social sciences in which a set  
of research methods originated, psychology followed suit by developing and integrating qualitative research  
methods that allow for more expression on the part of the participants, the truthfulness of the information  
extracted by the researchers in the research, and a more responsive relationship with them in the research  
practice. These approaches respond to human subjectivity and its meanings beyond the boundaries of existing  
knowledge, and since the development of methodological pluralism imposes moral obligations deeply rooted in  
the identity of psychology, this pluralism promotes scientific rigor and the truth of psychological knowledge.  
(Mertens, 2015: 296), and the tools of the current research include the following:  
Reckless Thinking Scale  
Based on the definition, dimensions of impulsive thinking were formulated that were presented to experts as  
basic components of that concept, and the percentage of experts agreed on the dimensions (95%), as well as  
determining the relative importance of each dimension. These dimensions also included (24) paragraphs to form  
the scale of reckless thinking in its initial form of four dimensions, which are as follows: impulsivity, risk-taking,  
lack of planning, and haste in making decisions.  
Psychometric properties of the scale  
This concept in the psychological literature indicates the correlation of the basic qualities specified in the model  
of the theory adopted to construct the tool with the standard statistical characteristics of that tool, including:  
multiple correlations, the stability of the tool and the methods of measuring them, and the extent to which the  
scores of the tool are consistent with respect to the measured trait, to integrate the information that will in essence  
constitute the validity of that tool. (Markus & Denny, 2013: 63-64). These characteristics include:  
Face Validity  
This type of honesty refers to how the test looks appropriate to the purpose for which it was designed, it relates  
to the familiarity and desired image of the test, in terms of the type of vocabulary, how it is formulated, and the  
clarity of these vocabulary, as well as the test instructions, the time of the test, and the degree of objectivity it  
has. (Shehata, 2012: 168), and the apparent truthfulness of the scale was extracted by presenting it to a group of  
experts and specialists in educational and psychological sciences to express their opinion on the validity of the  
scale, the relative importance of each of its dimensions, and the ability of its paragraphs to measure the reckless  
thinking of the research sample. All experts agreed on the validity of the paragraphs of the scale and their  
suitability to measure the phenomenon under study, and after taking their observations and opinions, the  
paragraphs were accepted and obtained a percentage of agreement 95%.  
Statistical analysis of the test items.  
Tests and measures are based on the principles of modern measurement theory by linking the standard  
characteristics of the instrument (coefficients of difficulty and distinction) with the levels of the measured  
attribute, as it seeks to analyze the statistical analysis of each paragraph to find out its distinctive characteristics  
(Habib & Sadiq, 2018: 359-360). Therefore, this analysis aims to verify the validity of the paragraphs of the  
scale through the following methods:  
After determining the upper and lower groups, the discriminating power of each of the items of the Health  
Thinking Scale was calculated using the (t-test) of two independent samples to calculate the average scores of  
the upper group with the average scores of the lower group for each of the (24) items of the scale, the paragraphs  
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that obtained the calculated (t-value) (1.960) or more were considered as distinct items because they are  
statistically significant ( ) At the level of (0.05) and at the degree of freedom (216). Table 1 shows this.  
Table (1) Parameters of the paragraphs of the Reckless Thinking Scale using the Extreme Sample Method  
Paragraph  
Number  
Lower Group (108)  
Top Group (108)  
Value (t-test)  
Arithmetic mean  
Standard deviation  
0.76  
Arithmetic mean  
Standard deviation  
0.97  
1.57  
1.99  
1.31  
1.52  
1.78  
2.18  
1.90  
2.39  
2.77  
2.61  
1.56  
1.33  
2.41  
1.64  
2.25  
1.88  
2.76  
2.13  
1.58  
1.66  
3.16  
3.05  
2.20  
2.89  
3.06  
3.16  
2.91  
3.07  
3.06  
3.24  
2.99  
2.52  
2.97  
3.14  
3.19  
3.19  
3.19  
3.12  
2.98  
2.94  
18.80  
12.42  
9.57  
1.  
0.82  
0.94  
2.  
0.70  
1.18  
3.  
0.78  
1.01  
15.76  
13.24  
10.68  
10.54  
6.93  
4.  
0.99  
1.01  
5.  
0.99  
0.91  
6.  
0.94  
1.04  
7.  
1.07  
0.98  
8.  
1.06  
0.94  
3.07  
9.  
1.15  
0.89  
6.33  
10.  
11.  
12.  
13.  
14.  
15.  
16.  
17.  
18.  
19.  
20.  
0.88  
1.14  
14.47  
13.00  
5.66  
0.78  
1.08  
1.05  
1.02  
0.74  
0.95  
18.31  
10.05  
14.84  
4.22  
1.02  
0.93  
0.96  
0.88  
1.09  
1.00  
0.95  
1.00  
10.53  
16.33  
14.30  
0.81  
0.96  
0.88  
0.98  
The term "statistically significant" refers to a statistical result that indicates that measured data from individuals shows an  
effect or relationship (MacBride, 2018:26)  
It is symbolized by the symbol (df), and is called the degree of freedom of variance of the sample, which is the number of  
degrees in the sample that have freedom of change in all but one degree that does not have freedom of change, and its  
mathematical formula is: (df = n-1) (Privitera, 2019: 249).  
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1.49  
1.81  
1.61  
1.44  
0.75  
0.80  
0.88  
0.75  
2.74  
2.96  
2.69  
2.75  
1.05  
0.97  
1.04  
1.06  
14.21  
13.41  
11.66  
14.79  
21.  
22.  
23.  
24.  
The tabular value of (t) at the degree of freedom (214) and the significance level of (0.05) is equal to (1.96).  
Internal consistency method of items.  
Internal consistency refers to the extent to which a group of similar elements are related to each other for the  
paragraphs of the scale. Technically, internal consistency is determined by the degree of interrelationships  
between the subjects' responses to a set of relevant scale items or a set of subscales with the overall score of the  
scale, and to create a reliable test, the scale items must be significantly related to each other, then They are  
retained, while those with low correlations are dropped. (AL-Ogaidi, 2020: 144), and for the purpose of  
calculating the internal consistency of the scale, the researcher applied the scale to a random stratified sample  
of (400) male and female students from the faculties of education for humanities and pure sciences, then  
according to the correlation coefficients between the items of the scale, between the total score, between the  
paragraphs of each field with the total score of the field, and finally between the score of each field with each  
other and the total score of the scale. To know the significance of the correlation coefficients, the (t) test was  
used.by comparing the calculated values of (t) with the tabular value of (t) of (1.960) at the significance level of  
(0.05) and the degree of freedom (2014) it was found that all the paragraphs are statistically significant, and the  
internal consistency of the paragraphs of the reckless thinking test was verified through the following methods:  
Finding the relationship between the paragraph score and the overall score of the scale  
The researcher used the internal test represented by the total score of the scale to extract the validity of the  
construction, as the honesty of the paragraphs is extracted by most researchers in psychometrics empirically by  
calculating the correlation coefficient between the scores of the paragraph and the total score of the scale, which  
is a strong indicator of the internal consistency of the scale. Cronbach's alpha coefficient is calculated based on  
the correlations between the score of each paragraph separately and the total result obtained from the scale (total  
correlations between paragraphs). (Brough, 2019: 51), and for the purpose of identifying the significance of the  
values of the correlation coefficient, the value of (t) was calculated as a significance as the correlation factor,  
and it was found that the calculated value of (t) is greater than the value of (t) of (1.960) at the level of significance  
(0.05) and degree of freedom (399), and Table (2) shows this.  
Table (2) Correlation coefficients for each item of the Reckless Thinking Scale with the total score of the scale  
Paragraph  
Number  
The relationship between the paragraph and the total score of  
the correlation coefficient  
(T-test) for correlation  
coefficients  
0.56  
0.46  
0.35  
0.50  
0.44  
0.41  
0.38  
13.59  
10.45  
7.50  
1.  
2.  
3.  
4.  
5.  
6.  
7.  
11.64  
9.83  
9.07  
8.10  
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0.26  
0.14  
0.24  
0.46  
0.45  
0.22  
0.53  
0.35  
0.45  
0.17  
0.38  
0.52  
0.47  
0.46  
0.45  
0.45  
0.48  
5.35  
2.72  
8.  
9.  
4.82  
10.  
11.  
12.  
13.  
14.  
15.  
16.  
17.  
18.  
19.  
20.  
21.  
22.  
23.  
24.  
10.39  
9.91  
4.43  
12.50  
7.50  
10.14  
3.53  
8.15  
12.24  
10.59  
10.36  
9.97  
10.00  
11.03  
The tabular value is equal to (1.96).  
Reliability of the scale  
The rescaling method of consistency measures the temporal stability of the scale. In this method, the scale is  
administered for the same sample on two different occasions. This type of stability is used to assess the  
consistency of the scale over time (time stability). This approach assumes that there will be no significant change  
in the structure measured between the two occasions by administering the same procedure on two different  
occasions. The researchers obtain two sets of scores. The correlation coefficient calculated for these two sets of  
scores is the consistency coefficient. (Verma, 2019: 47), and accordingly, the researchers extracted the stability  
of the scale by re-scaling on a sample of (100) male and female students, and after (15) days, the same scale was  
reapplied to the members of the stability sample themselves, and the value of the correlation coefficient between  
the scores of the first measurement and the scores of the second measurement was (0.83), and in this type of  
estimation, we can determine the extent of reliability in the possibility of generalizing the results from the degree  
obtained by the individual.  
Correcting the Reckless Thinking Scale  
Correction means setting a score for the examinee's response on each of the paragraphs of the scale and then  
adding the scores to find the total score. The scale was corrected according to the method prepared by the  
researcher as more appropriate than others, as the one who sets the scale is the one who has the key to correction  
(Rabih and Khatam, 2008: 206), while the weights and alternatives of the response on the paragraphs of the scale  
were four alternatives, which are “applies to me a lot,” “applies to me to a moderate degree, applies to me a little,  
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does not apply to me). The lowest score was (24) and the highest score was (96), with a hypothetical average of  
(60), and Figure (1) shows this.  
24  
60  
96  
The hypothetical medium  
Minimum Grade  
Top Grade  
Figure 1: represents the minimum, maximum, and average hypothetical values for Reckless thinking.  
RESULTS  
Measuring Reckless Thinking  
To achieve the goal and after processing the data statistically, the results showed that the arithmetic average of  
the students' score reached (58.22) with a standard deviation of (10.39) and when comparing the arithmetic mean  
of the students' score with the hypothetical average of performance of (60) and using the T scale for one sample,  
it was found that the calculated T value is equal to (3.24) which is greater than the tabular T value (1.96) at the  
significance level of (0)05) and a degree of freedom (399). The obtained T-value indicates the presence of a  
statistically significant difference between the arithmetic mean of the sample and the hypothetical mean,  
reflecting a relatively lower level of reckless thinking among students of the faculties of education for the  
humanities and pure sciences, and Table (3) shows this.  
Table (3) Results of the T-Scale for the Significance of Reckless Thinking  
Number  
Hypothetical  
Average  
Arithmetic  
Average  
Standard  
deviation  
T-value  
Significance level  
at (0.05)  
400  
60  
58.22  
10.39  
Calculated Tabularity  
function  
3.24  
1.96  
The researcher attributes the result of this descriptive study to the current cultural and social framework. Iraqi  
society is often characterized by strong familial togetherness and well-established social standards, which  
contribute to the creation of external regulatory systems that control individual conduct. Within this context,  
kids are frequently taught to conform to communal standards concerning responsibility, academic dedication,  
and the avoidance of actions that could endanger personal or familial reputation. Consequently, the  
comparatively diminished level of reckless thinking identified in the current sample might be considered a  
manifestation of these contextual factors, as deduced from the descriptive analysis of the study’s findings, rather  
than as a direct causal effect empirically tested.  
For several years, the city of Mosul has been in military war, social unrest, and major structural changes that  
have had a big impact on the lives of its citizens, particularly university students. In this kind of situation, being  
exposed to uncertainty and possible danger over and over again may make people less sensitive to rapid rewards  
and more likely to make decisions that are careful and take time. From a descriptive and interpretive standpoint,  
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this pattern might be perceived as a manifestation of adaptive cognitive orientation, wherein pupils recognize  
that impulsive risk-taking can lead to significant and irreversible repercussions in unstable environments. This  
view aligns with the delay-aversion aspect of the dual-pathway model (Sonuga-Barke), suggesting that  
individuals facing significant environmental costs may progressively prefer regulated and strategic decisions  
over rapid rewards. Moreover, the conservative cultural framework of Iraqi society—especially pronounced in  
Mosul—stresses social conformity, accountability, and the avoidance of actions deemed detrimental to  
individual or communal stability. These cultural norms may help keep people from doing harmful things to  
obtain a thrill, which in turn keeps them from acting recklessly. These explanations come from a careful reading  
of the descriptive results of the current study. They are not based on empirical evidence but rather on contextual  
interpretations. This pattern is shown in Figure 2.  
(58.22)  
The arithmetic average of  
the research sample  
24  
96  
60  
Minimum Grade  
Top Grade  
The hypothetical medium  
Figure 2: The level of reckless thinking among the research sample  
CONCLUSION  
Societal values play a key role in curbing reckless thinking by strengthening external controls. On the other  
hand, difficult environmental conditions (such as war) may lead individuals to adopt survival strategies based  
on caution and planning. The rigorous educational system also promotes analytical thinking at the expense of  
impulsivity.  
REFERENCES  
1. AL-Ogaidi, Muhammad Hashem Taha sulaiman (2020) Fast-Slow Thinking and its Relationship with  
Preventive Thinking and Circular Thinking among Students at the University of Mosul.  
(Unpublished Master's Thesis), Department of Educational and Psychological Sciences, Faculty of  
Education for Humanities, University of Mosul, Iraq.  
2. Brough, Paula (2019) Advanced Research Methods for Applied Psychology Design, Analysis and  
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Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, United States of America.  
3. Habib, Safaa Tarek and Sadiq Abdel Nour Aziz (2018) Building Psychological Scales According to  
the Paragraph Response Theory Using the Generalized Scouting Model. First Edition, Dar Al-  
Manhayah for Publishing and Distribution, Amman, Jordan.  
4. Johnson, R., & Lee, S. (2019). Impulsivity and academic performance in higher education. Journal of  
Educational Psychology, 111(3), 20–35. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000123  
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