INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XII December 2025  
Diversifying Zambia's Energy Mix: A Qualitativee  
Analysis of Zesco's Transition from Hydrodependence  
Michael Musheba Ndopu1*,Dr. Nicholas Odongo2  
1,2Graduate School of Business, University of Zambia, Zambia  
*Corresponding Author  
DOI: https://doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.91200028  
Received: 11 December 2025; Accepted: 19 December 2025; Published: 31 December 2025  
ABSTRACT  
Zambia’s electricity sector is predominantly reliant on hydropower, generating 85% of its energy from  
hydroelectric sources. However, climate change-induced droughts and water shortages at major reservoirs,  
such as Kariba Dam, exposed the country to severe energy instability. Consequently, energy diversification has  
become an urgent policy objective for ZESCO and the Zambian government. This study examined ZESCO’s  
transition from hydro-dependence to a diversified energy mix by assessing consumer perceptions, stakeholder  
perspectives, and policy challenges affecting renewable energy adoption. A qualitative case study approach  
was employed, combining semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders and document analysis of energy  
policies, regulatory frameworks, and investment reports. The study sample included ZESCO officials,  
government policymakers, energy experts, and electricity consumers, providing a multi-dimensional  
understanding of Zambia’s energy diversification landscape. Data were analyzed through thematic analysis,  
which identified core themes related to energy security, financial constraints, policy barriers, and public  
willingness to support diversification efforts. Results revealed that 65% of consumers rated electricity supply  
as unreliable, with daily outages lasting between 8 and 16 hours for most respondents. Public awareness of  
ZESCO’s diversification initiatives was low, with 50% only somewhat informed about renewable projects.  
Solar and wind energy emerged as preferred alternatives, with 40% supporting solar expansion. Financial  
constraints (25%) and regulatory barriers (25%) were the primary obstacles. Despite these barriers, 50% of  
consumers expressed willingness to pay higher tariffs for improved reliability. The study recommended policy  
enhancements, strategic investments in solar and wind, and improved consumer engagement to support  
Zambia’s transition toward a resilient and diversified energy future.  
Keywords: Energy diversification, electricity reliability, hydropower dependence, renewable energy, energy  
security  
INTRODUCTION  
Zambia’s energy sector has historically been dominated by hydroelectric power, with the Zambia Electricity  
Supply Corporation (ZESCO) serving as the primary electricity provider. While hydropower has provided a  
renewable and relatively cost-effective energy source, the country’s heavy reliance on it has made the sector  
highly vulnerable to climate variability, particularly fluctuations in rainfall patterns affecting critical reservoirs  
such as Kariba Dam (Moobola, 2025). The El Niño-induced drought of 2024 significantly reduced Zambia’s  
hydropower generation, leading to power shortages and economic strain (Ministry of Energy, 2024).  
The energy sector plays a pivotal role in Zambia’s economic development, with electricity serving as a  
fundamental driver of industrialization and growth (World Bank, 2019). However, persistent challenges such  
as insufficient generation capacity, high transmission and distribution losses, and limited rural electrification  
continue to constrain the sector’s ability to meet national demand (Energy Regulation Board, 2023). Despite  
hydropower’s advantages, its susceptibility to climate change exemplified by extreme weather phenomena like  
El Niño poses significant risks. Past occurrences have triggered severe droughts, drastically reducing  
hydropower generation and leading to widespread power shortages and economic losses (African Climate  
Foundation, 2023).  
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Recognizing the urgency of energy diversification, Zambia has begun taking steps to transition towards a more  
resilient and sustainable energy mix. Diversification is viewed as a strategic approach to mitigating climate  
related risks, strengthening energy security, and fostering long-term economic stability (Mhango, 2024). The  
Ministry of Energy has outlined various initiatives aimed at improving energy efficiency and expanding access  
to clean energy alternatives such as solar, wind, and biomass (ZESCO, 2025). ZESCO, in collaboration with  
international partners, has initiated large-scale solar photovoltaic (PV) projects, rooftop solar systems, and  
biomass energy developments (Lusaka Times, 2023). These efforts aim to reduce Zambia’s dependence on  
hydroelectric power while addressing the energy sector’s susceptibility to climate-induced fluctuations.  
Beyond renewables, Zambia’s energy transition has also included strategic enhancements in Liquid Petroleum  
Gas (LPG) to complement other clean energy solutions (Besa & Chiwele, 2023). Additionally, Mwanza (2022)  
examined ZESCO’s diversification strategy, highlighting efforts to reduce the frequency and severity of load  
shedding by integrating alternative energy sources. However, the successful implementation of energy  
diversification requires comprehensive policy frameworks, stakeholder engagement, and substantial  
investment in transmission and distribution infrastructure (Energy Regulation Board, 2023).  
ZESCO’s dependence on hydropower has led to significant challenges in recent years, primarily due to climate  
change-induced droughts and erratic rainfall patterns (Sladoje, 2016). These environmental vulnerabilities have  
resulted in frequent power shortages, negatively impacting businesses, households, and Zambia’s broader  
economic landscape (Chileshe et al., 2019). The Energy Regulation Board (2023) reports that hydropower  
currently accounts for 85% of Zambia’s energy mix, while coal contributes 9.9%, solar 6%, and diesel 2.6%.  
This imbalanced energy portfolio exposes the country to significant risks associated with climate variability.  
The nation’s total generation capacity stands at 1,217 MW, falling significantly short of its peak demand of  
2,600 MW, creating an energy deficit of nearly 1,000 MW (Ministry of Energy, 2024). This persistent shortfall  
has led to widespread load shedding, adversely affecting Zambia’s economic productivity and overall quality  
of life.  
ZESCO serves a diverse consumer base categorized into residential, commercial, social, and maximum-  
demand customers (ZESCO Annual Report, 2022). The maximum-demand category, which includes large  
industrial consumers such as mines, exerts considerable influence on ZESCO’s operational strategy and long-  
term planning. Understanding the energy consumption patterns and needs of these customer segments is  
critical for formulating effective energy diversification strategies that align with Zambia’s development  
priorities (Kapika & Eberhard, 2013).  
This study therefore sought to contribute to Zambia's ongoing energy transition by analyzing alternative energy  
sources, evaluating the challenges and opportunities associated with diversification, and assessing the potential  
impacts on energy security, economic growth, and climate resilience. Through a qualitative assessment of  
ZESCO’s diversification pathway, the research aimed to provide insights into policy implementation,  
investment strategies, and stakeholder engagement, ultimately supporting Zambia’s transition towards a more  
sustainable and diversified energy sector.  
1.2 Statement of the Problem  
Energy security and diversification remain critical concerns for developing economies, with extensive research  
exploring the transition from fossil fuels to renewable alternatives (Owusu & Asumadu-Sarkodie, 2016).  
Energy security and diversification are critical for developing economies, with considerable research focused  
on transitioning from fossil fuels to renewables (Owusu & Asumadu-Sarkodie, 2016). Zambia is unique,  
relying primarily on hydropower. While global calls for diversification persist (Ang et al., 2015), limited  
studies address challenges in renewable-dependent contexts like Zambia. The Ministry of Energy’s Integrated  
Resource Plan (2022) proposes expanding the energy mix, but faces financial, infrastructural, and policy  
barriers most notably ZESCO’s weak revenue base due to low tariffs, limiting investment (Energy Regulation  
Board, 2023; Avila et al., 2017). Growing electricity demand further strains supply and infrastructure (Ministry  
of Energy, 2022; Trotter et al., 2017). It is against this problem that this study was developed to adressing these  
concerns, this study aims to bridge existing research gaps by critically examining the feasibility of ZESCO’s  
energy diversification efforts, identifying viable solutions, and assessing their broader implications for national  
energy security.  
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Aim of the study  
To conduct a qualitative assessment of ZESCO’s energy diversification strategy, examining pathways to reduce  
Zambia’s dependence on hydropower and enhance national energy security.  
Specific Objectives  
1. To identify and evaluate alternative energy sources suitable for Zambia, considering resource  
availability, technological feasibility, and environmental sustainability to determine the most viable  
diversification options.  
2. To analyze the technical, economic, and socio-political challenges confronting ZESCO in its transition  
toward a diversified energy mix and explore strategic opportunities for overcoming these barriers.  
3. To assess the projected impacts of energy diversification on Zambia’s long-term energy security,  
economic development, and resilience against climate-related disruptions such as the El Niño crisis.  
Research Questions  
1. What alternative energy sources are most viable for Zambia, considering resource availability,  
technological feasibility, and environmental sustainability?  
2. What are the key technical, economic, and socio-political challenges facing ZESCO's transition to a  
diversified energy mix, and how can they be addressed?  
3. How will energy diversification impact Zambia's long-term energy security, economic development,  
and resilience to climate-related disruptions like the El Niño crisis?  
Significance of the Study  
This study is significant as it addresses Zambia’s urgent energy security concerns, given its heavy reliance on  
climate-sensitive hydropower. By evaluating alternative energy sources, the research aims to reduce this  
dependency, thereby enhancing resilience against climate variability and supporting sustainable economic  
growth. Reliable, diversified energy is vital for Zambia’s industrialization, job creation, and long-term  
development. The study also aligns with environmental goals by exploring eco-friendly energy options that can  
mitigate climate change impacts. For ZESCO, it provides insights into technical, economic, and policy  
challenges of diversifying the energy mix. Additionally, it offers evidence-based recommendations to  
policymakers and fills academic gaps on energy diversification in renewable-dependent countries like Zambia,  
particularly regarding resilience to climate disruptions such as El Niño.  
LITERATURE REVIEW  
Overview of the Zambian Energy sector  
Zambia's energy sector has historically been dominated by hydropower, accounting for most of the country's  
electricity production. The reliance on hydropower stems from Zambia's abundant water resources and the  
construction of significant hydroelectric power plants such as the Kariba Dam and the Kafue Gorge Dam  
(Mwenda, 2017). Hydropower has been efficient and cost-effective, providing a renewable and relatively  
stable energy source under favourable climatic conditions. The country's primary energy provider, ZESCO,  
relies heavily on this hydro-based infrastructure, purchasing approximately 85% of its electricity from  
hydropower sources (Chileshe, 2018).  
Hydropower, however, poses significant vulnerabilities due to its dependence on consistent rainfall and water  
levels. Recent climatic changes and severe droughts, exacerbated by phenomena like El Niño, have caused  
substantial reductions in water levels, leading to power shortages and load shedding. These issues have  
highlighted the urgent need for energy diversification to enhance resilience and energy security (Chibwe,  
2019). While the benefits and current reliance on hydropower are well documented, empirical research on the  
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practical implementation and outcomes of diversifying Zambia's energy mix remains limited. Specifically,  
there is a gap in detailed qualitative analyses examining ZESCO's strategic transition from hydro-dependence  
to a more diversified energy portfolio that includes renewable sources like solar and wind power. Additionally,  
the socioeconomic impacts of this energy transition on different sectors and communities within Zambia have  
not been thoroughly explored. Research is needed to better understand the challenges and opportunities of  
integrating new renewable technologies into the existing energy infrastructure.  
Several critical knowledge gaps must be addressed to comprehend and fully facilitate Zambia's energy sector  
transition. Firstly, there is a need for detailed case studies and qualitative analyses of ZESCO's efforts to  
diversify its energy portfolio. This research should focus on identifying best practices, challenges, and success  
factors in implementing renewable energy projects. Secondly, it is essential to investigate the socio-economic  
effects of transitioning to a diversified energy mix, particularly on rural communities and various economic  
sectors. This will ensure that the benefits of renewable energy are equitably distributed and sustainable  
development is achieved. Thirdly, it is necessary to examine the technical challenges and solutions associated  
with integrating renewable energy technologies into Zambia's existing grid infrastructure to ensure a reliable  
and stable energy supply. Lastly, an analysis of the current policy and regulatory environment that supports or  
hinders energy diversification in Zambia is crucial.  
Historical Context of Energy Diversification  
The concept of energy diversification gained prominence following the oil crises of the 1970s, which  
highlighted the vulnerabilities of economies heavily dependent on a single energy source. The sudden spikes in  
oil prices and disruptions in supply chains during this period prompted nations, particularly those in the  
industrialized world, to reassess their energy strategies. Daniel Yergin (2006) argues that these crises catalyzed  
a shift in global energy policies, prompting countries to seek diverse energy portfolios to prevent similar  
destabilization. A relevant case is China's experience in 1978, where rapid population growth and industrial  
expansion led to increasing reliance on oil, ultimately straining the country's electric power industry. This  
dependence resulted in widespread blackouts and highlighted the consequences of overreliance on a single  
energy source.  
China's urgent need for energy solutions during this period led to a significant increase in oil consumption,  
affecting global oil markets due to the rise in demand. Yergin (2006) notes that this spike in consumption  
influenced policymakers to recognize the risks associated with single-source dependency. Reinforcing the  
rationale for energy diversification to improve security and reduce vulnerabilities to supply disruptions. As the  
discourse on energy diversification matured, theoretical frameworks began to emerge in the academic  
literature. Stirling (1994) proposed a comprehensive framework for analyzing energy diversity, consisting of  
three core dimensions: variety, balance, and disparity. Variety addresses the number of distinct energy sources  
in a portfolio; balance emphasizes proportionality among these sources. Disparity considers differences  
between energy types, such as renewable versus non-renewable sources.  
This framework has significantly influenced subsequent research and has encouraged approaches that focus on  
creating resilient and adaptable energy systems. With regard to Zambia, historical perspectives on energy  
diversification in the country remain highly relevant. Currently, Zambia's energy system is heavily dependent  
on hydropower, and ZESCO, the primary energy provider, purchases approximately 85% of its electricity from  
this renewable source (Mwenda, 2017). While hydropower has proven to be efficient under favourable climatic  
conditions, it has made the country susceptible to fluctuations in rainfall. Recent severe droughts, exacerbated  
by El Niño, have highlighted these vulnerabilities, resulting in reduced power generation and economic  
impacts on sectors dependent on reliable energy supply (Chileshe, 2018).  
Stirling's framework for energy diversity provides a conceptual lens to understand Zambia's potential to  
mitigate these vulnerabilities. By diversifying energy sources to incorporate renewables such as solar and wind  
power, Zambia can aim to achieve an energy mix that is resilient to environmental variability and aligned with  
global sustainability goals (Stirling, 2010). Although the transition to a diversified energy portfolio presents  
challenges, it is crucial to Zambia's long-term energy security, enabling the country to meet growing demand  
and endure adverse climatic conditions without severe economic consequences (Chibwe, 2019).  
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Empirical Review of Related Literature  
An empirical review focuses on existing data-driven research and case studies that shed light on Zambia's  
energy diversification efforts, challenges, and policy frameworks. By analyzing findings from recent studies,  
industry reports, and comparative research on energy transitions in developing nations, this section offers  
insights into Zambia's path toward a diversified energy mix and its implications for energy security,  
sustainability, and economic resilience.  
Recent studies underscore the necessity of energy diversification in improving energy security and reducing  
economic vulnerabilities. Research conducted by Solarin et al. (2025) demonstrated that nations heavily  
dependent on single-source energy models, such as hydropower or fossil fuels, face significant risks of supply  
disruptions due to environmental and geopolitical factors. Their findings revealed that renewable energy  
sources like solar and wind not only enhance stability but also contribute to long-term sustainability. This has  
particular relevance for Zambia, whose reliance on hydropower exposes it to periodic droughts and seasonal  
fluctuations. Diversification into solar and wind energy, as highlighted by Solarin et al. (2025), offers a  
strategic path for securing reliable energy supply and mitigating the adverse effects of climate variability.  
Furthermore, the study emphasized the importance of combining energy diversification with supportive policy  
measures to ensure economic feasibility and public acceptance.  
Another notable study by Asomah and Ofodile (2024) explored the impacts of climate variability on  
hydropower-dependent economies, offering a detailed analysis of how prolonged droughts and seasonal  
changes disrupt electricity generation and industrial activities. Their research highlighted that hydropower  
systems, while renewable, are vulnerable to climate extremes, which can significantly affect grid reliability.  
Zambia’s energy sector faces similar challenges, given its dependence on hydropower for electricity  
generation. Asomah and Ofodile (2024) stressed the need for alternative energy investments, such as solar and  
biomass, to supplement hydropower and enhance supply reliability. Their findings also underscored the socio-  
economic implications of energy supply disruptions, including reduced industrial productivity and limited  
access to electricity for residential consumers. Thus prioritizing diversification, Zambia can address these  
challenges while fostering economic stability and sustainability.  
Empirical evidence from comparative research on energy transitions in developing nations also highlights the  
role of private-sector investment in driving innovation and scalability. A study by Abugre et al. (2023)  
examined renewable energy projects in sub-Saharan Africa, focusing on how private-sector involvement  
enhances efficiency and accelerates implementation. Their findings revealed that public-private partnerships  
play a crucial role in overcoming financial and infrastructural barriers, particularly in countries with limited  
government resources. For Zambia, leveraging private-sector investment can complement ZESCO’s efforts in  
transitioning to a diversified energy mix. Abugre et al. (2023) emphasized the need for enabling regulatory  
frameworks to attract private-sector participation, including incentives for renewable energy projects and  
mechanisms for risk sharing.  
In addition to financial and infrastructural challenges, policy frameworks remain a key determinant of energy  
diversification success. Empirical studies by Njoroge and Karanja (2024) highlighted the effectiveness of  
policy interventions in promoting renewable energy adoption in East African nations.  
Their research identified gaps in policy implementation, including inadequate enforcement and lack of  
alignment with national development goals. These findings are relevant to Zambia, where existing energy  
policies require critical evaluation to ensure they effectively support diversification efforts. Njoroge and  
Karanja (2024) recommended strengthening policies through clearer mandates, financial support mechanisms,  
and stakeholder engagement. This study builds on these recommendations by analyzing Zambia’s policy  
environment and proposing actionable solutions to address identified gaps.  
Beyond the systemic factors of energy diversification, the socio-economic impact on Zambia's industrial and  
residential sectors warrants attention. A case study conducted by Mensah et al. (2023) in Ghana provided  
valuable insights into how renewable energy integration influences economic growth, job creation, and energy  
access. Their findings showed that energy diversification drives industrial competitiveness by reducing power  
outages and lowering energy costs. Moreover, renewable energy projects create employment opportunities in  
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installation, maintenance, and manufacturing, contributing to broader socio-economic development. Zambia  
stands to benefit similarly from energy diversification, particularly in rural electrification and equitable energy  
distribution. Mensah et al. (2023) also highlighted the importance of public awareness campaigns in ensuring  
the successful adoption of renewable energy solutions, an approach that Zambia could integrate into its  
transition strategy.  
Lastly, studies on climate resilience provide critical insights into the long-term benefits of energy  
diversification. Research by Ouedraogo et al. (2024) examined the role of renewable energy in mitigating  
climate-related disruptions, such as extreme weather events and resource scarcity. Their findings underscored  
that diversification enhances adaptability and reduces vulnerability to external shocks. For Zambia, energy  
diversification not only strengthens resilience against climate variability but also aligns with global  
sustainability goals. Ouedraogo et al. (2024) advocated for regional collaboration to share best practices and  
technologies, suggesting that Zambia could benefit from partnerships with neighboring countries to advance its  
energy transition. All in all this empirical evidence from recent studies and comparative research highlights the  
critical role of diversification in addressing Zambia’s energy challenges.  
Energy Security and Diversification in Developing Nations  
Energy security is a fundamental pillar of economic stability, ensuring reliable, affordable, and sustainable  
access to energy resources (International Energy Agency, 2021). In developing nations, energy security is often  
compromised by over-reliance on a single energy source, inadequate infrastructure, and climate-induced  
disruptions (Gozgor & Paramati, 2022). Studies emphasize that energy diversification is a strategic approach to  
mitigating risks associated with climate change, economic instability, and infrastructure limitations (Owusu &  
Asumadu-Sarkodie, 2016). Countries that depend on hydropower, fossil fuels, or imported energy face  
heightened risks due to market volatility, geopolitical tensions, and environmental challenges (Vivoda, 2019).  
For instance, Sub-Saharan Africa has experienced severe energy shortages due to climate variability,  
particularly in nations reliant on hydropower (Asomah & Ofodile, 2024). The oil crisis of 1973, the Gulf War  
of 1990–1991, and the Russia-Ukraine War of 2022 further demonstrated the global vulnerabilities associated  
with energy dependence (Solarin et al., 2025). Energy diversification is also linked to the expansion of  
renewable energy sources, reducing reliance on fossil fuels and enhancing long-term sustainability (Akrofi,  
2021). However, the pace of diversification remains slow in many developing nations, largely due to financial  
constraints, technological limitations, and policy inefficiencies.  
Climate Change Impacts on Hydropower Generation  
Climate change presents considerable challenges for hydropower-dependent nations such as Zambia, where  
ZESCO is significantly dependent on the Zambezi River to meet electricity demand. The vulnerability of  
hydropower to climatic fluctuations is particularly concerning, as changes in precipitation patterns and the  
increase in the frequency of droughts diminish water availability, resulting in uncertainty regarding the  
generation capacity. Hamududu and Killingtveit (2012) predict that climate change could drastically impact  
hydropower production globally, with Southern African nations like Zambia facing significant decreases due to  
decreased water inflows.  
Recent studies have further elucidated the ongoing impacts of climate change on hydropower production.  
Spalding-Fecher et al. (2017) examined the Zambezi River Basin, which is vital for Zambia's power  
generation, suggesting that variable rainfall and stream flow could significantly reduce hydroelectric  
production. Their findings advocate for adaptive management strategies and a diversified energy portfolio to  
ensure energy security in the face of these challenges. Zhao et al. (2023) investigated how droughts under  
changing climate conditions affect hydropower, confirming that reduced inflows lead to compromised  
electricity generation, thus emphasizing the need for robust, climate-resilient energy planning.  
The Zambezi River Authority (ZRA), which regulates the use of water for hydropower between Zambia and  
Zimbabwe, has had to restrict water allocations to ZESCO due to prolonged droughts and decreased inflows.  
ZESCO's operational capacity has recently been constrained as water levels at key reservoirs, such as the  
Kariba Dam, reached historic lows. ZRA's management of this shared resource illustrates a pressing challenge  
for Zambia. Even minor disruptions to water availability can precipitate substantial load shedding. This was  
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evidenced by the March 2024 announcement of daily 8-hour load shedding due to low water levels (Lusaka  
Times, 2024).  
Research supports the shift toward alternative energy investments to mitigate these issues. Carlino et al. (2023)  
highlight the declining costs of renewable energy, arguing that Africa's energy future should focus on a more  
diversified approach that incorporates solar, wind and biomass alongside hydropower. By transitioning to  
renewable technologies, Zambia can build a more resilient energy sector that is less susceptible to climate  
induced disruptions.  
Energy Diversification Strategies and Challenges  
Diversification of energy is essential to achieve energy security and resilience, especially in nations that are  
highly dependent on a single source, such as Zambia, which is dependent on hydropower. The need for  
diversification is especially urgent as climate variability increasingly affects water levels, thus undermining  
hydropower stability. However, while diversification promises stability, the path to implementing these  
strategies is complex and filled with obstacles, particularly in developing countries. Ikevuje et al. (2024)  
discuss this complexity, noting that reducing energy dependence often involves balancing economic,  
environmental, and policy considerations with financial constraints and technological limitations that pose  
significant challenges in low-income settings.  
One promising avenue for diversification in Zambia is solar energy, given the country's high levels of solar  
radiation. Walimwipi (2012) explores the feasibility of grid-connected solar photovoltaics (PV) in Zambia,  
noting that the geographical advantages of the country make solar power an ideal addition to its energy mix.  
However, while Zambia has substantial solar potential, actualizing this requires overcoming high upfront costs  
and establishing policies to attract investment. This echoes the findings of El Anshasy and Khalid (2023), who  
reviewed energy diversification efforts in the UAE, a nation that has also relied heavily on a singular energy  
source (oil) and faced barriers like those of Zambia. They argue that public policy shifts, financial incentives,  
and a stable regulatory environment are critical to facilitating renewable energy investment and can make  
diversification financially and operationally viable.  
The integration of coal as part of Zambia's diversification strategy is a more contentious issue. Mwitwa and  
Makano (2012) analyze the role of coal in boosting energy security, highlighting its potential to support  
Zambia's energy needs in the short term. However, the expansion of coal use raises concerns about  
environmental sustainability, particularly considering global climate goals. The environmental trade-offs  
associated with coalbased energy require careful consideration of long-term impacts, as seen in research by  
Halttunen, Slade and Staffell (2023), who argue that diversification strategies should prioritize sustainability to  
align with global climate targets. Their study on oil majors underscores the risks of heavy fossil fuel  
dependence and promotes a transition toward renewables as a strategic necessity rather than a mere option.  
Overcoming these challenges will require Zambia to establish supportive policies that incentivize both solar  
and other renewable energy investments while balancing immediate energy security needs. Financial  
limitations, identified by Surroop and Raghoo (2018) as a major constraint in developing countries, hinder the  
pace of renewable adoption and call for increased international cooperation, funding and technical support.  
Zambia's energy policy must be structured to address these constraints, learning from nations that have  
successfully shifted towards a sustainable energy mix. These combined insights suggest that a diversified  
energy portfolio, including solar and cautiously balanced fossil fuel options, can offer Zambia a sustainable  
path forward.  
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK  
This study explored the theoretical foundations guiding the analysis of Zambia's energy diversification,  
grounding the study in two principal frameworks: the Energy Trilemma Model and the Resource-Based View  
(RBV) Theory.  
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Energy Trilemma Model  
The Energy Trilemma Model, established by the World Energy Council (2023), evaluates energy systems  
through three interconnected dimensions: energy security, equity, and environmental sustainability. For  
Zambia, energy security is paramount due to its heavy dependence on hydropower, leaving it vulnerable to  
climate variability such as droughts and El Niño events. The study used this lens to assess how diversifying  
into solar, wind, and biomass could mitigate these vulnerabilities and promote reliable electricity supply  
(World Energy Council, 2023). Energy equity addresses the need for affordable, accessible energy, which is  
particularly relevant as many Zambians lack reliable electricity. The model’s environmental sustainability  
dimension focuses on reducing greenhouse gas emissions and protecting biodiversity, aligning with Zambia’s  
climate and conservation objectives. The application of the Energy Trilemma Model thus enabled the study to  
critically examine how ZESCO balances reliability, affordability, and environmental protection in its  
diversification strategy.  
Resource-Based View (RBV) Theory  
The Resource-Based View (RBV) Theory, introduced by Barney (1991), centers on the strategic use of internal  
resources for competitive advantage. This study applied RBV to assess Zambia’s renewable energy assets such  
as solar, wind, and biomass and evaluated the nation’s capacity to utilize these resources amid economic and  
technological constraints (Barney, 1991). The RBV framework highlighted the need for investments in  
infrastructure, technology, and capacity-building to effectively leverage Zambia’s renewable potential,  
recognizing strengths such as abundant sunshine and weaknesses like limited financial resources.  
Combined, these theories provided a comprehensive framework for evaluating ZESCO’s diversification  
efforts. The Energy Trilemma Model offered a systemic view of sustainability trade-offs, while RBV focused  
on resource mobilization and strategic capability. Their integration allowed the study to analyze policy  
constraints, resource utilization, and opportunities for enhancing Zambia’s energy security, equity, and  
environmental stewardship. Ultimately, these frameworks informed actionable recommendations for ZESCO  
and policymakers, supporting Zambia’s broader goals of resilience and sustainable energy development.  
Conceptual Framework  
The framework revolves around the relationship between the independent variables influencing energy  
diversification and their impact on dependent variables linked to Zambia's energy security, economic growth,  
and environmental sustainability. It demonstrates how factors (independent variables) drive the outcomes  
(dependent variables) of energy diversification efforts. The conceptual framework illustrates how the  
independent variables (resource availability, technology, policies, economic factors, and socio-political  
dynamics) collectively influence the outcomes (energy security, economic growth, and environmental  
sustainability). For instance, a supportive regulatory environment and advancements in technology could  
enhance the feasibility of solar energy projects, thereby contributing to energy security and environmental  
sustainability.  
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Figure 3.2: Conceptual Framework  
Source: Author’s own design, 2025  
Literature Gaps  
While existing research provides valuable insights into broad energy diversification frameworks, it often  
overlooks specific aspects of Zambia’s energy sector, particularly ZESCO's transition efforts and the practical  
challenges involved. Limited studies have delved into the financial constraints faced by ZESCO, as well as the  
tangible impact of energy diversification on the country’s energy security. This study aims to fill these gaps by  
offering targeted policy recommendations and strategic insights that strengthen Zambia’s energy resilience.  
The key areas requiring further investigation include the financial viability of alternative energy projects in  
Zambia, which involves analyzing the cost-effectiveness and funding mechanisms required for their successful  
implementation. Additionally, the role of private-sector investment remains underexplored, despite its potential  
to drive innovation and accelerate diversification efforts. The effectiveness of existing policy frameworks in  
supporting renewable energy expansion is another critical area that demands attention, as robust policies are  
essential for incentivizing clean energy adoption. Furthermore, the socio-economic impact of energy  
diversification on Zambia’s industrial and residential sectors needs to be examined to understand how changes  
in the energy mix can influence economic growth, job creation, and the quality of life for citizens.  
METHODOLOGY  
Introduction  
This chapter outlined the methodological approach employed to assess ZESCO’s transition from hydropower  
dependence to a diversified energy mix in Zambia. The study adopted a qualitative case study design,  
integrating semi-structured interviews and document analysis to capture the complexities and multifaceted  
perspectives inherent in Zambia’s energy diversification efforts. The methodology was crafted to ensure rigor,  
depth, and relevance in exploring institutional, technical, and societal aspects of energy transition.  
Philosophical Assumption  
The research was anchored in a constructivist paradigm, positing that knowledge is socially constructed  
through stakeholder interactions and contextual experiences (Creswell, 2013). This approach was particularly  
suitable for exploring the nuanced, lived experiences of stakeholders within Zambia’s energy sector. The study  
also adopted an interpretivist stance, acknowledging the multifaceted influences of economic, political, and  
environmental factors on energy diversification. This philosophical foundation justified the use of qualitative  
inquiry and in-depth contextual analysis over quantitative generalization.  
Research Design  
A case study methodology facilitated an in-depth examination of ZESCO’s specific challenges and strategies in  
energy diversification (Yin, 2018). This approach enabled the integration of various data sources including  
policy documents, interviews, and strategic reports thereby ensuring a holistic understanding of Zambia’s  
energy sector. Focusing on ZESCO as a single case allowed for detailed insight into institutional dynamics and  
stakeholder engagement in the energy transition process.  
Research Approach  
The qualitative approach was selected to obtain rich, descriptive data about stakeholder perceptions and policy  
implementation in Zambia’s energy transition. This approach is supported by prior research demonstrating the  
value of qualitative methods in understanding energy transitions in developing contexts (Owusu &  
AsumaduSarkodie, 2016; Trotter et al., 2017). By emphasizing context and lived experience, the qualitative  
framework captured the depth and diversity of views shaping Zambia’s energy future.  
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Study Setting and Population  
The research was conducted within Zambia’s energy sector, with data collection focused on urban centers  
where key stakeholders—including ZESCO officials, government policymakers, energy experts, and electricity  
consumers—were accessible. The study population encompassed those directly involved in planning, policy,  
and implementation of energy diversification projects, as well as end-users experiencing its impacts. This  
inclusivity ensured a broad range of perspectives and heightened the validity of findings.  
Sample Size and Sampling Technique  
A purposive sampling strategy was used to select participants based on their expertise and relevance to energy  
diversification (Patton, 2015). The sample included 10 ZESCO officials, 5 government policymakers, 5 energy  
experts, and 80 community leaders and electricity consumers. This approach aligns with qualitative research  
principles and previous energy sector studies in Africa (Mwanza, 2022; Ang et al., 2015), ensuring that  
selected participants could provide specialized and contextually relevant insights.  
Data Collection Procedures and Tools  
Primary data collection involved semi-structured interviews, guided by research objectives related to energy  
security, diversification barriers, and policy implementation. Interview guides allowed for both standardized  
questions and open-ended exploration, promoting depth and flexibility. All participants were contacted in  
advance, briefed about the study, and provided informed consent. Interviews were audio-recorded (with  
permission), transcribed verbatim, and anonymized for analysis.  
Secondary data were sourced through systematic document analysis, reviewing policy reports, government  
publications, and ZESCO’s strategic documents. Academic articles were accessed via scholarly databases such  
as Google Scholar and SpringerLink. The combination of interviews and document analysis enabled effective  
data triangulation, enhancing the credibility of findings.  
Validity and Reliability  
To ensure validity, triangulation was employed by comparing interview data with documentary evidence and  
previous empirical studies. Member checking was used, where participants reviewed their transcripts for  
accuracy. Reliability was supported by transparent coding procedures, utilizing Braun & Clarke’s (2006)  
thematic analysis framework to consistently identify and interpret themes across data sources.  
Data Analysis  
Data analysis followed a thematic approach, involving data familiarization, coding, category development, and  
pattern recognition. Emerging themes related to energy diversification challenges, stakeholder engagement,  
and policy barriers were systematically identified and interpreted in the context of Zambia’s energy sector and  
comparative literature.  
Ethical Considerations  
Ethical approval was obtained from the University of Zambia Graduate School of Business. In addition,  
administrative clearance was secured from ZESCO and relevant regulatory agencies. All participants provided  
informed consent, and confidentiality was ensured through secure data storage and removal of personal  
identifiers from transcripts. Participation was entirely voluntary, with the right to withdraw at any stage.  
Measures were taken to avoid harm or discomfort, uphold anonymity, and ensure non-maleficence throughout  
the research process. These protocols adhered to established ethical standards, guaranteeing academic integrity  
and the protection of participants’ rights.  
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RESULTS  
Results from ZESCO Customers  
How would you rate ZESCO’s current electricity supply reliability?  
This section presents findings from the qualitative analysis of ZESCO’s transition from hydro-dependence to a  
diversified energy mix, drawing on interviews with energy experts, government officials, and community  
representatives, as well as policy document analysis. Thematic analysis revealed that electricity supply  
reliability remains a major concern for ZESCO customers: 35% rated the supply as very unreliable and 30% as  
unreliable, while only 10% considered it reliable and just 5% rated it as very reliable. These results underscore  
widespread dissatisfaction with current supply consistency, indicating that many consumers face frequent  
outages or inconsistent service. The findings highlight persistent challenges in Zambia’s energy sector,  
emphasizing the urgent need for effective diversification strategies to improve reliability and meet both  
national development objectives and global renewable energy trends.  
Table 4.1: Reliability of ZESCO's Current Electricity Supply  
Rating  
Percentage  
35%  
1 (Very Unreliable)  
2 (Unreliable)  
3 (Neutral)  
30%  
20%  
4 (Reliable)  
10%  
5 (Very Reliable)  
5%  
How many hours of power outages do you typically experience per day?  
The frequency and duration of power outages directly impact economic productivity, household efficiency, and  
overall customer satisfaction. Respondents provided estimates of daily electricity blackouts, revealing that  
50% experience outages ranging from 8 to 16 hours per day, making this the most common issue. A smaller  
segment (25%) reported outages lasting less than 6 hours, while 15% experienced outages ranging from 16 to  
20 hours per day. Alarmingly, 10% indicated they face power cuts exceeding 20 hours daily, demonstrating the  
severity of electricity disruptions in Zambia.  
Table 4.2: Duration of Power Outages Per Day  
Hours  
Percentage  
25%  
Less than 6  
Aug-16  
50%  
16 - 20  
15%  
More than 20  
10%  
Alternative energy sources are most viable for Zambia  
Are you aware of ZESCO’s efforts to diversify its energy sources?  
Public awareness of ZESCO’s diversification strategy is critical to gaining consumer support and engagement.  
When asked about their familiarity with ZESCO’s renewable energy initiatives, 30% reported being fully  
aware, while 20% had no knowledge of the company’s diversification efforts. The majority (50%) were  
somewhat aware, suggesting that ZESCO needs to improve communication and outreach efforts regarding its  
sustainability plans.  
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Table 4.3: Awareness of ZESCO’s Energy Diversification Efforts  
Awareness  
Percentage  
30%  
Yes  
No  
20%  
Somewhat aware  
50%  
Which alternative energy sources do you think ZESCO should prioritize?  
Respondents were asked to identify which renewable energy sources ZESCO should prioritize in its  
diversification strategy. The results indicated that solar energy was the most preferred option (40%), followed  
by wind energy (25%). Other energy options such as geothermal (15%) and nuclear (10%) received moderate  
support, while coal and other energy sources were less favored (5% each).  
Table 4.4: Preferred Alternative Energy Sources  
Energy Source  
Solar  
Percentage  
40%  
Wind  
25%  
Geothermal  
Nuclear  
Coal  
15%  
10%  
5%  
Other  
5%  
Viable Options and Resource Feasibility  
Participant 1: “Based on Zambia’s abundant sunshine and the relative maturity of photovoltaic technology,  
solar energy stands out as the most practical alternative for large-scale deployment. As one energy expert  
explained, ‘Solar power is not only the most viable option because of our long hours of sunlight, but it’s also  
less environmentally disruptive compared to hydro. However, we must ensure the technology is affordable and  
accessible, especially for rural communities, to make a real impact on national energy supply and  
sustainability.”  
Participant 3: “While wind and geothermal also have potential, their development will require careful site  
selection, considerable investment, and integration with existing infrastructure. A government official noted,  
‘Wind energy could play a role in diversification, but we need comprehensive feasibility studies and data  
collection to justify investment. For now, solar remains the fastest and most scalable solution, especially if we  
prioritize local capacity building and environmentally sound deployment.”  
Results from ZESCO Staff  
How long have you been a ZESCO employee or customer?  
Understanding the tenure of ZESCO employees provides valuable insights into organizational knowledge and  
experience levels. Among the respondents, 40% had worked or engaged with ZESCO for 1 to 5 years,  
followed by 30% with 6 to 10 years of experience. Meanwhile, 20% had been part of ZESCO for over 10  
years, and 10% had joined within the last year.  
Table 4.5: Tenure of ZESCO Employees/Customers  
Tenure  
Percentage  
10%  
Less than 1 year  
1 - 5 years  
40%  
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6 - 10 years  
30%  
20%  
More than 10 years  
key technical, economic, and socio-political challenges facing ZESCO's transition to a diversified energy  
mix, and how can they be addressed?  
What are the greatest challenges ZESCO faces in diversifying its energy sources?  
ZESCO employees identified several barriers to energy diversification, with project financing and government  
policies ranking as the top concerns (25% each). Limited funding and regulatory challenges were also cited as  
significant obstacles (20% each), while the lack of a skilled workforce in renewable energy was highlighted by  
10% of respondents as a barrier. These results underscore the financial and regulatory constraints limiting  
ZESCO’s diversification efforts.  
Table 4.6: Major Challenges Facing ZESCO’s Energy Diversification  
Challenge  
Percentage  
25%  
Project Financing  
Government Policies  
25%  
Limited Funding and Financial Constraints  
Regulatory and Policy Barriers  
Lack of Skilled Workforce in Renewable Energy  
20%  
20%  
10%  
Barriers and Solutions in the Diversification Process  
Participant 2: “Financial constraints and inconsistent policy frameworks are the most significant hurdles  
facing ZESCO’s diversification. One ZESCO manager stated, ‘The biggest challenge is attracting investment  
for renewable projects because our tariffs are not cost-reflective and regulatory approvals are slow. If the  
government can provide clear incentives and streamline approval processes, we could see faster progress.  
Building partnerships with the private sector is also essential to overcome limited internal funding and  
expertise.”  
Participant 5: “There’s also a critical shortage of skilled labor for renewable energy technologies. As an energy  
consultant emphasized, ‘Transitioning to a diversified energy mix requires not just capital, but a workforce  
trained in solar, wind, and other renewables. We need targeted training programs and incentives for young  
engineers, otherwise we risk importing talent and missing out on local job creation opportunities.”  
What is ZESCO’s most important short-term goal for diversification?  
When asked about the most critical short-term goal, 40% of ZESCO employees prioritized solar energy  
expansion, while 20% favored implementing energy efficiency measures. An additional 20% supported  
expanding partnerships for renewable energy development, with another 20% emphasizing the need to reduce  
dependency on hydro sources.  
Table 5.3.2: ZESCO’s Short-Term Goals for Diversification  
Goal  
Percentage  
40%  
Increasing solar energy projects  
Implementing energy efficiency measures  
Expanding partnerships for renewable energy  
Reducing dependency on hydro sources  
20%  
20%  
20%  
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The findings indicate that both ZESCO customers and staff recognize the need for energy diversification, with  
strong support for solar and wind energy expansion. While consumers express concerns over unreliable  
electricity supply and frequent outages, ZESCO employees identify financial constraints, regulatory barriers,  
and policy inconsistencies as primary obstacles to diversification.  
Energy diversification impact Zambia’s long-term energy security, economic development, and  
resilience to climate-related disruptions like the El Niño crisis  
Results From Energy Experts  
On a scale of 1 to 5, how effective do you think ZESCO's current diversification efforts are in reducing  
hydro-dependence?  
Energy experts were asked to assess the effectiveness of ZESCO's diversification efforts in reducing reliance  
on hydropower. The findings indicate that only 10% of respondents considered ZESCO’s diversification efforts  
as very effective, while 20% rated them as somewhat effective. The majority, 30%, believed ZESCO's energy  
transition was moderately effective, suggesting gradual progress but persistent challenges. Meanwhile, 25%  
viewed the efforts as ineffective, and 15% rated them as very ineffective, indicating the need for stronger  
diversification measures to reduce Zambia’s vulnerability to hydropower limitations.  
Table 4.4.1: Effectiveness of ZESCO’s Diversification Efforts  
Effectiveness Rating  
1 (Not Effective at All)  
2 (Ineffective)  
Percentage  
15%  
25%  
3 (Moderately Effective)  
4 (Somewhat Effective)  
5 (Very Effective)  
30%  
20%  
10%  
4.4.2. In your view, what is the primary challenge to energy diversification in Zambia?  
The results revealed energy diversification faces numerous barriers that impact ZESCO's ability to integrate  
alternative power sources efficiently. Energy experts identified financial constraints 30%, regulatory barriers  
30%, and infrastructure limitations as the most significant obstacles. Many respondents 20% highlighted that  
ZESCO lacks sufficient investment to support large-scale renewable energy expansion, while others pointed to  
government policy inconsistencies that slow down progress. Additionally, challenges related to public  
awareness, stakeholder engagement, and technological capacity were noted, emphasizing the multifaceted  
nature of Zambia’s energy transition struggles.  
Challenges  
30 %  
30 %  
Regulatory barriers  
Financial constraints  
30 %  
25 %  
20 %  
15 %  
10 %  
5%  
20 %  
10 %  
10 %  
0%  
Limited renewables  
resources  
Public resistance  
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How supportive is Zambia's regulatory environment for renewable energy initiatives?  
The regulatory framework plays a crucial role in enabling the expansion of clean energy initiatives in Zambia.  
Energy experts rated Zambia’s regulatory environment on a scale of 1 (Not Supportive at All) to 5 (Very  
Supportive). 30% of respondents rated the regulatory framework as moderately supportive, indicating partial  
progress but ongoing bureaucratic obstacles. Meanwhile, 25% considered the policies unsupportive, and 20%  
viewed them as entirely inadequate, suggesting that policy reforms and enhanced incentives are needed to  
attract investment in renewables. Only 10% of experts found Zambia’s regulatory environment very  
supportive, indicating limited government facilitation of clean energy expansion.  
Table 5.4.4 : Supportiveness of Zambia’s Renewable Energy Policies  
Support Rating  
Percentage  
20%  
1 (Not Supportive at All)  
2 (Unsupportive)  
25%  
3 (Moderately Supportive)  
4 (Supportive)  
30%  
15%  
5 (Very Supportive)  
10%  
Which short-term measure should ZESCO prioritize to diversify its energy sources?  
Additionally it was observed that energy diversification requires strategic, immediate interventions to  
minimize  
Zambia’s dependence on hydroelectric power. Majority of the energy experts 40% recommended that ZESCO  
prioritize solar and wind energy expansion due to Zambia’s abundant sunlight resources. Other short-term  
goals included 20% enhancing and  
improving grid integration for renewables, and 20% modernizing  
transmission infrastructure to support distributed energy generation. Stakeholder engagement and policy  
harmonization were also cited as important near-term actions that could enhance energy security by about 20%  
participants.  
Measures  
Invest in solar and wind  
energy  
20%  
20%  
Implement pilot program  
for alternative energy  
40%  
Strengthen partnerships  
for technology sharing  
20%  
Increase public awareness  
and education  
How important do you believe long-term diversification goals are for Zambia's energy security?  
The study sought expert perspectives on the importance of long-term diversification for national energy  
stability. The majority (45% of respondents) rated diversification as extremely important, emphasizing the  
critical need for a balanced energy mix to mitigate climate-induced power shortages. Additionally, 30% rated  
diversification as important, while 15% considered it moderately necessary. Only 5% of experts believed  
diversification was not important, suggesting near-unanimous recognition of its necessity among industry  
professionals.  
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Table 5.4.6: Importance of Long-Term Diversification Goals  
Importance Rating  
Percentage  
5%  
1 (Not Important at All)  
2 (Slightly Important)  
3 (Moderately Important)  
4 (Important)  
5%  
15%  
30%  
5 (Extremely Important)  
45%  
Long-Term Outcomes and National Benefits  
Participant 1: “Diversification is central to stabilizing Zambia’s electricity supply and supporting economic  
growth. One community leader remarked, ‘When we lose power for more than half the day, businesses suffer  
and children can’t study. If ZESCO expands into solar and wind, it will create more reliable supply, attract  
investment, and help industries grow. This is essential not just for today, but for our children’s future as well.”  
Participant 3: “Energy diversification also plays a crucial role in climate resilience. An environmental expert  
shared, ‘With the frequency of droughts and the impact of El Niño, relying solely on hydropower is no longer  
sustainable. Diversified energy sources mean the country is less exposed to climate shocks. This will protect  
livelihoods, stabilize the grid, and ensure Zambia can meet its sustainable development goals and international  
climate commitments.”  
Findings from energy experts underscore the urgent need for stronger diversification strategies, with financial  
constraints, policy barriers, and infrastructure gaps emerging as major challenges. While ZESCO’s  
diversification efforts have shown moderate effectiveness, the regulatory framework is perceived as  
insufficiently supportive, requiring revised policies and incentives to accelerate energy transitions. Experts  
widely advocate for solar and wind power expansion, recognizing long-term diversification as essential for  
Zambia’s energy security.  
DISCUSSION  
Introduction  
This chapter provides a comprehensive interpretation of the study findings, linking them to existing literature  
and theoretical frameworks on energy diversification and renewable energy adoption. The discussion critically  
evaluates the implications of ZESCO’s transition from hydro-dependence, highlighting the opportunities,  
challenges, and policy recommendations necessary for a more sustainable energy future. By integrating  
stakeholder insights, policy assessments, and empirical findings, this chapter aims to provide actionable  
conclusions that contribute to Zambia’s long-term energy security. This section provides a comprehensive  
analysis of the study findings, integrating insights from the literature review while addressing both supporting  
and contradictory perspectives from previous studies. The discussion is structured around the research  
objectives, contextualizing results within broader energy transition themes in developing nations, public  
perception of renewable energy, and policy challenges affecting Zambia’s energy diversification efforts.  
The Reliability of ZESCO’s Electricity Supply  
The study found that 65% of customers rated ZESCO’s electricity supply as unreliable, with 50% experiencing  
outages lasting between 8 to 16 hours per day. These findings align with previous research indicating that  
hydropower-dependent nations are particularly vulnerable to climate variability and drought-related disruptions  
(Ang et al., 2015). Studies by Owusu & Asumadu-Sarkodie (2016) confirmed that over-reliance on a single  
energy source increases instability, especially in regions where seasonal fluctuations impact electricity  
generation, as seen in Zambia’s case.  
Zambia’s dependence on hydropower (85%), as detailed in the Energy Regulation Board report (2023), has led  
to severe electricity shortages, particularly during drought periods. A similar scenario occurred in Kenya and  
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Ghana, where extreme weather events significantly affected industrial output and economic growth due to  
energy inconsistencies (Trotter et al., 2017). These comparative cases highlight the urgent need for energy  
diversification in Zambia, particularly through investments in solar and wind power, which respondents  
identified as viable solutions. Contradictory perspectives from Vivoda (2019) suggest that hydropower remains  
a stable energy source when supported by efficient water management policies and interconnected backup  
grids. However, Zambia's reliance on a single energy source without a diversified backup system makes  
stability difficult to achieve. Unlike Norway, which integrates hydropower with other renewable sources,  
Zambia lacks adequate infrastructure to supplement hydropower, reinforcing the need for energy  
diversification to enhance reliability.  
Public Awareness of ZESCO’s Diversification Efforts  
The study showed that 50% of respondents were only somewhat aware of ZESCO’s diversification strategies,  
while 20% had no knowledge at all. These results highlight significant gaps in stakeholder engagement and  
public communication regarding energy transitions. Lack of awareness may lead to consumer resistance,  
policy misunderstandings, and low adoption rates of renewable energy programs. Public engagement has been  
identified as a key driver of successful energy transitions in developing countries. Research on renewable  
energy adoption in Sub-Saharan Africa emphasizes the importance of consumer awareness and active  
participation in supporting energy reforms (Mwanza, 2022). Similar challenges were reported in South Africa,  
where consumers initially distrusted solar and wind energy due to misinformation (Mhango, 2024).  
Conversely, a study by Kiptoo (2024) in Kenya demonstrated that public education campaigns contributed to  
increased acceptance of solar mini-grid systems, reducing dependence on expensive diesel generators. This  
suggests that ZESCO should enhance communication efforts, potentially through community-based  
workshops, government-backed awareness campaigns, and media engagement to improve understanding of  
energy diversification benefits. Latin American studies also highlight the importance of targeted messaging,  
where Chile’s energy transition failed initially due to poor outreach efforts, whereas Brazil’s multi-stakeholder  
engagement successfully drove renewable adoption (Solarin et al., 2025). ZESCO could adopt Brazil's model,  
ensuring clear messaging to consumers, policymakers, and business stakeholders regarding the necessity of  
diversifying energy sources.  
Challenges Affecting Energy Diversification  
Findings from the study revealed significant barriers to energy diversification, including financial constraints  
(25%), government policies (25%), and infrastructure limitations (20%). These findings align with Avila et al.  
(2017), who noted that low tariff structures and inconsistent regulatory frameworks discourage investment in  
renewable energy across Africa. Empirical case studies from South Africa and Ghana show that tax incentives  
and private-sector collaborations play a vital role in attracting investment for solar and wind projects  
(Mthembu, 2025). However, Zambia has yet to fully leverage financial incentives for renewable energy  
expansion, leading to investment uncertainty (Jesuit Centre for Theological Reflection, 2024).  
A contradictory perspective by Anokye et al. (2025) argues that government intervention alone cannot drive  
diversification, and consumer-driven demand for renewables is equally necessary. However, in Zambia's  
centralized energy sector, most energy transition efforts depend on policy reforms, suggesting the need for  
stronger governmental leadership in facilitating private-sector investment.  
In addition to financial and policy barriers, infrastructure constraints remain a major challenge. Studies in  
Tanzania and Uganda show that weak grid integration for renewables limits diversification efforts, making it  
difficult to incorporate solar and wind energy without modernizing transmission networks (Kiptoo, 2024).  
These insights support calls for ZESCO to prioritize grid infrastructure upgrades alongside its diversification  
plans.  
The Role of Policy and Investment in Diversification  
The regulatory framework was found to be only moderately supportive of energy diversification, with 30% of  
energy experts rating it as somewhat supportive. Policy fragmentation and unstable tariff structures were cited  
as significant obstacles, aligning with research by Trotter et al. (2017).  
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Case studies from India and Kenya highlight the importance of consistent regulatory frameworks in securing  
international investment for renewables (Gozgor & Paramati, 2022). Kenya’s successful geothermal expansion  
was enabled by stable incentives and predictable government policies, a model that Zambia could adopt  
(Kiptoo, 2024). Contradictory perspectives from Solarin et al. (2025) indicate that policy effectiveness alone  
does not guarantee diversification success, citing cases where strong regulatory support failed due to financial  
limitations and stakeholder resistance. Zambia’s experience supports this perspective, as financial constraints  
are a greater challenge than policy uncertainty in renewable energy expansion. The study found that 50% of  
respondents were willing to pay higher electricity rates for improved reliability, while 20% opposed price  
increases, citing affordability concerns. These findings align with studies on energy economics, which suggest  
that consumers prioritize reliability over cost when experiencing frequent electricity disruptions (Vivoda,  
2019). Similar findings were reported in South Africa, where consumers supported higher-cost solar projects  
due to improved stability (Mhango, 2024). However, contradictory results from Mimba & Mwenya (2024)  
suggest that in lower income communities, affordability outweighs concerns about reliability, requiring  
government subsidies to balance costs for vulnerable populations.  
All in all the findings from the study indicate that ZESCO’s reliability remains a major concern, largely driven  
by hydropower dependence and climate variability. Public awareness regarding energy diversification is  
moderate, signaling a need for enhanced stakeholder engagement and policy communication. Major challenges  
include financial limitations, regulatory fragmentation, and infrastructure deficiencies, requiring government  
backed investment incentives and stronger private-sector collaboration. While consumers recognize the  
importance of energy transition, pricing concerns persist, indicating that any tariff restructuring should account  
for affordability and economic equity. Comparisons with Kenya, South Africa, and Brazil provide useful  
insights into best practices for energy diversification, reinforcing the need for policy stability, incentive-driven  
investment, and improved public communication strategies. This chapter has examined the key findings in  
relation to ZESCO’s diversification efforts, emphasizing the major financial, regulatory, and infrastructural  
constraints affecting renewable energy expansion in Zambia. The discussion highlights how stakeholder  
engagement, consumer awareness, and policy reforms could enhance the country’s energy resilience. The final  
section presents strategic recommendations, offering insights into how ZESCO and government authorities can  
accelerate the transition to a diversified energy mix while ensuring long-term sustainability and economic  
feasibility.  
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS  
Conclusion  
This study assessed ZESCO’s transition from hydro-dependence to a diversified energy mix, analyzing the  
reliability of electricity supply, public awareness of diversification efforts, key challenges, the role of policy  
and investment, and consumers’ willingness to pay for improved electricity reliability. The findings indicate  
that ZESCO’s electricity supply remains unreliable, with frequent power outages significantly affecting  
consumers. Hydropower dependence has left Zambia’s energy sector vulnerable to climate-induced  
disruptions, reinforcing the need for diversification. While solar and wind energy were identified as preferred  
alternatives, public awareness of ZESCO’s diversification initiatives remains limited, signaling the need for  
improved stakeholder communication and outreach efforts. Key barriers to diversification include financial  
constraints, regulatory challenges, and infrastructure limitations, which impede Zambia’s ability to transition to  
renewable energy. Although Zambia’s policy environment is moderately supportive, the study highlights the  
need for stronger incentives and investment frameworks to attract private-sector involvement. Despite financial  
concerns, a majority of consumers expressed willingness to pay higher tariffs for improved energy reliability,  
suggesting potential revenue mechanisms for financing diversification initiatives. The results underscore the  
urgency of strengthening energy policies, securing investment in renewables, and enhancing public  
engagement to ensure a sustainable and resilient electricity supply in Zambia. The study concludes that  
ZESCO’s energy diversification strategy requires urgent reforms in policy, investment, infrastructure, and  
public engagement. While solar and wind energy present viable alternatives, addressing financial constraints  
and regulatory inefficiencies is crucial for successful implementation. Public willingness to support  
diversification suggests a strong foundation for advancing renewable energy initiatives, provided that  
stakeholder engagement and transparent policy reforms remain a priority.  
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Contributions of the Study  
This study makes significant contributions to the body of knowledge on energy diversification in Zambia. It  
provides a comprehensive analysis of perspectives from both ZESCO customers and staff, offering insights  
into the challenges and opportunities associated with energy diversification. The research highlights the  
importance of customer awareness and support for diversification efforts, emphasizing the need for effective  
communication strategies. Additionally, it identifies critical barriers to diversification, including financial  
constraints, regulatory challenges, and the need for skilled human resources. The study provides practical  
recommendations for policymakers, energy companies, and other stakeholders involved in energy  
diversification efforts. Moreover, the research contributes to the broader literature on energy security and  
sustainability, reinforcing the necessity of diversifying energy sources to enhance the reliability of electricity  
supply.  
RECOMMENDATIONS  
Based on the study objectives and findings, the following recommendations are proposed:  
1. Improve electricity reliability through diversification accelerate solar and wind energy investments to  
reduce reliance on hydropower and to develop energy storage systems to manage fluctuations in  
renewable energy supply.  
2. Implement nationwide awareness campaigns on energy diversification benefits and strengthen  
community involvement through public forums and stakeholder consultations.  
3. Introduce tax incentives and subsidies to attract investment in renewable projects.  
4. Restructuring electricity tariffs to balance affordability and infrastructure development.  
5. Develop long-term energy transition policies with clear renewable energy targets.  
6. Introduce tiered electricity pricing models based on energy reliability improvements and provide  
incentives for energy-efficient practices among residential and industrial consumers.  
Recommendations for Further Research  
1. Investigate the effectiveness of various communication and public engagement strategies in increasing  
awareness and support for energy diversification.  
2. Conduct detailed cost-benefit analyses of renewable energy projects to determine their financial  
viability and economic impact.  
3. Examine the long-term climate resilience of different energy sources and infrastructure to ensure  
sustainable energy security.  
Author Contributions: M.M.N. was responsible for conceptualization, methodology, writing review and  
editing, and analysis. N.O. handled the article editing.  
Funding: No funding was provided for this research. The authors have no relevant affiliations or financial  
involvement with any organization or entity with a financial interest in or financial conflict with the subject  
matter or materials discussed in the manuscript apart from those disclosed. No writing assistance was utilized  
in producing this manuscript.  
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.  
Data Availability Statement: The datasets used during the current study are available from the corresponding  
author upon reasonable request.  
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS  
I am deeply grateful to Dr. Dr. Nicholas Odongo for her unwavering support and supervision during both the  
preparation of the proposal and the writing of this dissertation. I also want to sincerely thank my wife,  
colleagues, whose words of encouragement, affection, and prayers have been a source of strength and  
inspiration throughout my academic journey. Last but not least, I thank my Lord God Almighty for the rare  
opportunity given to me to accomplish my dream of acquiring my Masters Degree.  
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.  
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