INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XII December 2025  
Democratising Engineering Education through Consumer  
Technology: QR Code-Based Automation Learning in Resource-  
Constrained Malaysian Institutions  
Silah Hayati Kamsani*., Darren Maing Anak Abitt  
Center for Smart System and Innovative Design, Faculty of Industrial and Manufacturing Technology  
and Engineering, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Hang Tuah Jaya, 76100 Durian Tunggal,  
Melaka, Malaysia  
*Corresponding Author  
DOI: https://doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.91200047  
Received: 11 December 2025; Accepted: 19 December 2025; Published: 31 December 2025  
ABSTRACT  
Educational equity in STEM fields remains a critical challenge for developing economies participating in the  
Fourth Industrial Revolution. This study systematically characterises QR code parameters for reliable detection  
in low-cost automation systems. The investigation used an ESP32-CAM-based package sorting platform  
representative of Malaysian educational laboratory capabilities. Multi-dimensional experimentation across code  
sizes (3×3 cm to 6×6 cm), scanner positioning heights (12.5 - 20.5 cm), and orientation angles (0°- 60°)  
established evidence-based implementation guidelines. Results from 30 experimental runs revealed that larger  
codes (6×6 cm) achieved 100% recognition success at optimal heights (12.5 - 16.5 cm), while smaller codes  
(3×3 cm, 4×4 cm) demonstrated substantially lower success rates. Educational evaluation with 31 participants  
showed 20% average improvement in automation concept mastery, with 61.3% reporting increased STEM  
interest following hands-on interaction. The QR code-based system demonstrated low implementation costs (RM  
768.25/USD 62 per laboratory station) using standard office equipment and basic camera modules, making  
automation education accessible within typical Malaysian institutional budgets. These findings demonstrate that  
strategic technology selection leveraging consumer familiarity can overcome resource constraints traditionally  
limiting developing economy students’ access to hands-on engineering education, supporting Malaysia's  
Industry 4.0 workforce development goals while providing frameworks applicable across ASEAN contexts.  
Keywords: educational equity, automation education, QR code technology, resource-constrained institutions,  
STEM education  
INTRODUCTION  
The Digital Divide in Engineering Education  
Educational equity in STEM fields remains a critical challenge for developing economies seeking to participate  
in the Fourth Industrial Revolution. While developed nations invest heavily in STEM infrastructure such as  
robotics kits and modern laboratory equipment (SEAMEO STEM-ED, 2024), Southeast Asian institutions face  
barriers including inadequate laboratories and lack of up-to-date educational materials (Huynh et al., 2024; Vann,  
2023). This disparity threatens to widen the technology skills gap as emerging high-value jobs increasingly  
require STEM competencies (Jamaluddin et al., 2025), potentially excluding populations from knowledge-  
intensive sectors while much of the workforce remains concentrated in low-skill industries (East Asia Forum,  
2025; World Economic Forum, 2025).  
Malaysia exemplifies this challenge. Despite national policy commitments to Industry 4.0 readiness through the  
Digital Economy Blueprint and National Fourth Industrial Revolution Policy (Economic Planning Unit, 2021),  
technical education institutions operate within severe financial constraints limiting facility upgrades, technology  
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XII December 2025  
adoption, and curriculum development (Ahmad & Rosnan, 2024). These budgetary limitations create barriers to  
implementing automation curricula, as programmes require major investments in robotics equipment, AI  
systems, consumables, and highly qualified trainers (Hassan, 2024).  
Technology Democratisation Through Consumer Familiarity  
COVID-19 accelerated QR code adoption, transforming specialised industrial tools into ubiquitous consumer  
interfaces. Usage increased nearly 50% during 2020-2021, normalising across diverse sectors beyond immediate  
pandemic applications (Tu et al., 2022, QR Code Tiger, 2025). This rapid societal adoption, with Malaysia  
achieving over 89% smartphone penetration by 2023, created an educational opportunity; a low-cost technology  
foundation for teaching complex automation concepts (Statista, 2024). Unlike traditional educational  
technologies, QR codes leverage students' existing smartphone competencies from daily activities like digital  
payments and e-commerce, providing a low-barrier entry to automation education (Low et al., 2023; Upstack  
Studio, 2024; Commission Factory, 2023). This widespread consumer adoption, combined with Malaysia's  
growing e-commerce sector, creates pedagogical opportunities connecting automation concepts to technologies  
students encounter daily.  
Socioeconomic Implications of Educational Technology Access  
The choice of educational technology (EdTech) carries profound socioeconomic implications beyond immediate  
pedagogical effectiveness. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) systems require substantial capital  
investment, readers ranging from RM 40 – 10,000 (USD 10 – 2,500) for educational applications, with tags  
costing RM 0.20 - 80 (USD 0.05 - 20) each, that effectively excludes budget-limited institutions from automation  
education (Lowry Solutions, 2024; RFID Card, 2025; RFIDtagworld, 2024a, 2024b). Near Field Communication  
(NFC) technology similarly necessitates dedicated hardware of RM 160 – 10,000 (USD 40 – 2,500), though  
many smartphones now include integrated NFC capability (RFIDtagworld, 2024c; Magestore, 2024). These cost  
barriers create a two-tier educational system; well-funded institutions in developed economies access practical  
automation training, while developing economy institutions remain limited to theoretical instruction.  
In contrast, QR code-based educational systems can be implemented at RM 0.05 (USD 0.01) per code using  
existing institutional infrastructure, including standard office printers and basic camera modules under RM 45  
(USD 9.45), fundamentally altering the economics of automation education. This cost differential represents a  
major improvement in educational accessibility, the difference between theoretical knowledge and hands-on  
competency development for entire student populations in budget-limited contexts.  
Research Problem: Knowledge Gaps in EdTech Equity  
Recent systematic reviews of EdTech in developing economies provide context for this study. Rodriguez-Segura  
(2022) reviewed 81 EdTech interventions across 36 low- and middle-income countries, finding that technology  
access alone shows limited effectiveness without complementary pedagogical support. UNESCO (2023)  
documented that EdTech in Southeast Asia often remains inaccessible to marginalized learners despite policy  
commitments. World Bank, ILO, and UNESCO (2023) identified weak institutional capacity and limited  
technical support as systemic barriers in TVET systems across developing economies.  
However, these reviews focus predominantly on general computing technologies and mobile learning platforms.  
Limited research examines specialized technical training equipment, particularly low-cost automation systems  
suitable for resource-constrained institutions. Existing literature predominantly examines high-end automation  
in developed markets, leaving gaps regarding how resource-constrained institutions achieve effective  
educational outcomes through low-cost alternatives.  
Given these accessibility barriers and demonstrated gaps in existing scholarship, four specific knowledge gaps  
emerge. First, research on low-cost automation training in developing economy TVET contexts remains  
insufficient, with existing EdTech research focused on general computing rather than specialised automation  
systems. Second, empirical validation of automation technology performance under budget-limited conditions  
typical of ASEAN institutions remains inadequate (Wickramasinghe & Wickramasinghe, 2024).  
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Third, practical implementation guidelines addressing limited technical support infrastructure are absent despite  
systemic barriers. Finally, investigation of cost-effectiveness relationships between automation training  
technology and learning outcomes remains limited in these contexts.  
Research Purpose and Significance  
To address these gaps, this study systematically characterises QR code parameters for reliable automation  
education in resource-constrained institutional settings. Using an ESP32-CAM-based package sorting platform  
representative of Malaysian educational laboratory capabilities, the investigation employs controlled  
experimentation across multiple parameter dimensions to establish evidence-based implementation guidelines  
applicable across developing economy educational contexts.  
The research provides three contributions to educational equity scholarship:  
1. Empirically validated technology specifications enabling effective hands-on automation education within  
developing economy budget constraints,  
2. Practical implementation guidelines supporting technology democratisation across budget-limited  
institutions, and  
3. A replicable methodological framework for EdTech evaluation in developing economy contexts.  
METHODOLOGY  
Research Design  
This study employed a mixed-methods approach combining controlled laboratory testing of QR code recognition  
parameters with educational evaluation of learning outcomes and usability. The research was conducted at  
Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM) using an ESP32-CAM-based miniature automated package  
sorting system developed specifically for educational applications.  
Technical Performance Testing  
Controlled laboratory testing examined QR code recognition performance across multiple parameter dimensions.  
The investigation comprised two complementary components:  
1. Parameter Selection: Parameters were selected based on practical constraints in Malaysian educational  
contexts. Code sizes (3×3 to 6×6 cm) reflected typical size use in logistic industry and material cost  
considerations. Height ranges (12.5 - 20.5 cm) represented typical low-cost conveyor configurations  
achievable within institutional budgets. Angle variations (0° - 60°) simulated realistic misalignment  
scenarios in student-operated systems where precise positioning cannot be guaranteed.  
2. Experimental Design: Thirty experimental runs tested combinations of code sizes (6×6 cm, 5×5 cm, 4×4  
cm, 3×3 cm), scanner heights (20.5 cm, 18.5 cm, 16.5 cm, 14.5 cm, 12.5 cm), and orientation angles (0°,  
15°, 30°, 45°, 60°). For each combination, recognition success rates (percentage of successful scans) and  
processing times (seconds required for recognition) were recorded.  
Educational Effectiveness Evaluation  
Educational evaluation employed pre-test/post-test methodology with 31 participants to assess knowledge  
acquisition regarding automation concepts through hands-on interaction with the QR code-based educational kit.  
Participants completed structured assessments measuring understanding of automation principles, system  
functions, and practical implementation concepts before and after kit interaction.  
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Usability Assessment  
User feedback was collected through structured questionnaires employing 5-point Likert scales for quantitative  
assessment and open-ended questions for qualitative feedback. The survey addressed instructional clarity, ease  
of use, engagement levels, and STEM interest cultivation. Module completion rates and session retention metrics  
provided additional engagement indicators.  
Data Analysis  
Quantitative data including recognition success rates, processing times, pre-test/post-test scores, and survey  
responses were analysed using descriptive statistical methods appropriate to each measure. Technical  
performance metrics (recognition success rates and processing times) were summarised using means and  
percentages across experimental conditions. Educational effectiveness was assessed by calculating percentage  
improvement from pre-test to post-test scores for each participant, then averaging across the sample (n=31) to  
determine mean knowledge gains. Likert scale responses (1-5) from usability questionnaires were analysed using  
frequency distributions and percentages to characterise user experiences. Given the exploratory nature of this  
initial validation study and the small sample size, inferential statistics were not employed; instead, descriptive  
analysis focused on establishing preliminary effect magnitudes to inform future larger-scale investigations.  
Qualitative feedback was synthesised thematically to identify common usability challenges and engagement  
patterns.  
Figure 1 shows the experimental system configuration used for all performance testing.  
Figure 1 - ESP32-CAM-based QR code recognition system showing overall system architecture.  
RESULTS  
Technical Performance as Educational Accessibility Indicator  
Controlled laboratory testing (30 experimental runs) examined QR code recognition performance across varying  
parameters to determine accessibility thresholds for educational implementation. Results revealed systematic  
relationships between code size, positioning, and recognition success rates that directly inform cost-effective  
educational system design.  
Height and Size Parameter Analysis  
Recognition success rates varied significantly based on QR code size and scanner height positioning, as  
illustrated in Figure 2. Larger codes (6×6 cm) achieved near-perfect detection (100%) at optimal heights (12.5 -  
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16.5 cm), while smaller codes (3×3 cm, 4×4 cm) demonstrated substantially lower success rates, particularly at  
greater heights.  
Figure 2 - Recognition success rates (%) across five scanner heights for four QR code sizes.  
6×6 cm codes require only standard office printers, while optimal heights (12.5-16.5 cm) accommodate low-cost  
conveyor designs.  
Average recognition processing times demonstrated modest variation across parameter combinations (Figure 3),  
ranging from 4.21 to 4.57 seconds.  
Figure 3 - Average recognition time across scanner heights for different QR code sizes.  
Orientation Angle Robustness  
Testing across orientation angles (0°, 15°, 30°, 45°, 60°) revealed differential robustness by code size, with  
implications for operational reliability in student-operated educational environments (Figure 4).  
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Figure 4 - Detection rates for three QR code sizes across five orientation angles.  
These technical performance results establish that educational systems using low-cost hardware can achieve  
reliable performance (≥90% success) when designed within validated parameter ranges: codes ≥5×5 cm at  
heights ≤16.5 cm.  
Educational Effectiveness and Learning Outcomes  
Evaluation with 31 participants employed pre-test/post-test methodology to assess knowledge acquisition  
regarding automation concepts through hands-on interaction with the QR code-based educational kit.  
Knowledge Acquisition Metrics  
Quantitative assessment revealed substantial knowledge gains across all measured dimensions, as summarised  
in Table 1.  
Table 1 - Educational Effectiveness Metrics.  
These learning gains occurred within single 30-minute interaction sessions, suggesting efficient knowledge  
transfer through familiar technology interfaces.  
STEM Interest Cultivation  
User engagement metrics demonstrated notably high interaction levels with significant implications for STEM  
pipeline development. Table 2 shows the percentage of participant responses regarding increased STEM interest  
following kit interaction.  
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Table 2 - User Engagement and Interest Indicators.  
The hands-on nature of the kit allowed active engagement with automation systems. The 61.3% increase in  
STEM interest represents a particularly significant finding for workforce development.  
Usability and Accessibility Perceptions  
User feedback (n = 31) revealed generally positive usability experiences whilst highlighting areas for refinement  
in EdTech design for diverse user populations.  
Instructional Clarity and Ease of Use  
Table 3 presents the results of user responses regarding instructional clarity, revealing that whilst nearly half  
found instructions completely clear, significant portions experienced varying levels of difficulty.  
Table 3 - Usability Performance Indicators.  
Table 4 shows specific components presenting usability challenges.  
Table 4 - Component-Specific Usability Challenges (Qualitative Feedback).  
Engagement Quality  
Participant engagement with the educational kit demonstrated high levels across multiple indicators, as shown  
in Table 5. This is based on engagement ratings (5-point scale) for hands-on activities. Results: 48.4% rated  
engagement level 4 (high), 32.3% rated 5 (very high), with minimal low-engagement responses.  
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Table 5 - Engagement Distribution.  
The absence of low-engagement responses (ratings 1-2) indicates consistent user interest, whilst the 80.7%  
reporting high-to-very-high engagement suggests effective pedagogical design for maintaining learner attention  
and motivation.  
DISCUSSION  
These technical performance, educational effectiveness, and usability findings inform several key implications  
for EdTech equity in resource-constrained contexts.  
Implications for EdTech Selection and Educational Equity  
Technical performance data reveal critical implications for EdTech selection in budget-limited contexts. Low-  
cost ESP32-CAM systems (RM 768.25 per station) achieved 100% recognition rates with appropriately sized  
codes (6×6 cm, 5×5 cm), suggesting that educational quality need not require high-cost specialised equipment  
(Rodriguez-Segura, 2022). These findings suggest that for foundational automation education, consumer-grade  
technologies provide adequate functionality when implemented within validated parameter ranges. The 85%  
module completion rate and 61.3% STEM interest increase demonstrate that resource-constrained contexts can  
achieve quality outcomes through strategic technology selection combined with thoughtful pedagogical design.  
However, performance degradation with smaller codes (3×3 cm: 20-73% success) illustrates important boundary  
conditions. Educational systems must balance cost reduction against functional reliability; highly cost-optimised  
implementations risking unreliable operation may undermine effectiveness through student frustration.  
The usability challenges highlight that technology cost reduction alone proves insufficient for equity. Accessible  
hardware must accompany accessible pedagogy; clear instructions, scaffolded learning progressions, and support  
for diverse user needs. The finding that only 48.4% found instructions completely clear highlights persistent  
challenges in EdTech design for diverse user populations serving students with varying prior knowledge and  
learning styles.  
Learning Outcomes and Hands-On Engagement  
The educational evaluation revealed important patterns in knowledge acquisition and learner engagement. The  
20% knowledge improvement and 90% functional explanation competency achieved in 30-minute sessions  
suggest that hands-on interaction with familiar technologies facilitates efficient automation concept acquisition,  
though long-term retention remains to be evaluated. Familiar interfaces may reduce cognitive load, enabling  
students to focus on automation principles rather than technology operation.  
The 61.3% increase in STEM interest represents a particularly significant finding for developing economy equity  
concerns. Given Malaysia's Industry 4.0 workforce development goals, educational interventions that  
substantially increase student interest in technical disciplines address critical pipeline challenges. The hands-on  
engagement model, allowing active manipulation rather than passive observation, appears particularly effective  
for sparking disciplinary curiosity, potentially influencing long-term educational and career trajectories.  
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However, the 48.4% recommendation rate suggests room for enhancement. This may reflect the usability  
challenges noted in feedback, particularly regarding instructional clarity. Addressing these pedagogical gaps  
could strengthen the kit's effectiveness.  
Usability and Inclusive Design Considerations  
The reported struggles with motor systems and scanning components suggest that 'user-friendly' consumer  
technology familiarity does not automatically extend to understanding underlying automation principles. This  
gap represents a critical pedagogical challenge; leveraging consumer technology recognition while building  
deeper engineering comprehension requires deliberate instructional design beyond hardware provision.  
The qualitative feedback about automation concept difficulties indicates that the kit successfully challenges users  
intellectually while potentially requiring enhanced pedagogical scaffolding. Balancing intellectual challenge  
(necessary for meaningful learning) with frustration avoidance (necessary for sustained engagement) represents  
an ongoing design tension in EdTech development.  
Methodological Limitations and Boundary Conditions  
The evaluation sample (n = 31 participants) represents an important limitation constraining the generalisability  
of learning outcome claims. This sample size, whilst providing preliminary evidence for substantial knowledge  
gains (20% average improvement) and STEM interest cultivation (61.3% increase), is insufficient to establish  
robust statistical power or ensure representation across diverse student populations. The findings should be  
interpreted as initial validation requiring replication with larger, more diverse samples across multiple Malaysian  
institutions before confident generalisation. Future research employing sample sizes of n > 100 across varied  
institutional contexts is essential to confirm these preliminary educational effectiveness patterns. Additionally,  
the single-institution context may not represent broader Malaysian educational diversity, particularly regarding  
student demographics, prior technical exposure, and institutional resources.  
The study examined one specific low-cost technology (QR code/ESP32-CAM systems) for foundational  
automation concepts. Generalisability to other consumer technologies, other engineering topics, or advanced  
specialisation remains uncertain. The observed learning outcomes apply specifically to introductory automation  
concepts; whether foundational education using low-cost technologies adequately prepares students for  
advanced specialisation requiring industry-standard equipment warrants longitudinal investigation.  
Furthermore, the evaluation measured immediate learning outcomes (post-test) and short-term engagement  
(module completion) without examining long-term knowledge retention or sustained STEM interest. The  
durability of observed effects, critical for educational investment decisions, requires follow-up assessment.  
Several additional limitations warrant consideration. First, this study evaluated QR code systems without direct  
comparison to RFID, NFC, or barcode alternatives, limiting conclusions about relative cost-effectiveness.  
Second, the 30-minute evaluation captured immediate learning outcomes but not long-term knowledge retention.  
Third, STEM interest increases were self-reported without validated psychometric instruments, potentially  
inflating estimates. Finally, the single-institution context may not represent the full diversity of Malaysian  
educational settings, particularly regarding student demographics, prior technical exposure, and available  
resources.  
CONCLUSIONS  
Principal Findings and Theoretical Contributions  
This research demonstrates that consumer-grade technologies, when strategically selected and appropriately  
implemented, can deliver educationally effective automation learning experiences within budget constraints  
typical of Malaysian technical institutions. Three principal findings emerge:  
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First, EdTech value derives from the intersection of technical functionality, cost constraints, and learner  
familiarity, challenging technology-centric evaluation approaches prioritising sophistication over accessibility.  
The demonstration that RM 768.25 systems achieve effective learning outcomes suggests cost-effectiveness as  
a legitimate design criterion rather than inevitable compromise.  
Second, consumer technology adoption patterns create time-limited educational opportunities. The widespread  
QR code familiarity resulting from pandemic-driven digital payment adoption represents population-level  
technological competency that reduces learning curves and cognitive barriers to engineering education.  
Third, hands-on engagement with familiar technologies demonstrates effectiveness for STEM interest  
cultivation. The 61.3% interest increase following brief hands-on interaction suggests that strategic interventions  
addressing cognitive and engagement barriers can meaningfully influence educational and career trajectories  
even with modest resource investments.  
Practical Implications  
Institutions should strategically select technologies optimising cost-functionality-familiarity intersections,  
permitting validated low-cost alternatives for broad-access training whilst reserving specialised equipment for  
advanced specialisation. Procurement policies should distinguish foundational from advanced equipment needs,  
permitting validated low-cost alternatives for broad-access training whilst reserving specialised equipment for  
advanced specialisation.  
Contributions to Scholarship  
This research advances equity scholarship through empirical demonstration that strategic technology selection  
can overcome resource constraints traditionally limiting developing economy students’ access to hands-on  
engineering education. The findings challenge two assumptions; that educational quality correlates with  
technology cost, and that developing economy education must await budget increases for quality improvement.  
These contributions suggest theoretical directions for EdTech research in developing economies: frameworks  
emphasising accessibility, cultural familiarity, and sustainability alongside technical performance dimensions  
often marginalised in developed economy research.  
Future Research Directions  
This study opens multiple research avenues addressing remaining uncertainties:  
1. Longitudinal Outcomes: Systematic investigation of whether foundational low-cost education adequately  
prepares students for advanced specialisation.  
2. Comparative Effectiveness: Cross-institutional studies examining learning outcome equivalence across  
different technology cost points with controlled pedagogical variables. Current findings demonstrate low-  
cost technology effectiveness but do not directly compare to high-cost alternatives with equivalent  
pedagogical support.  
3. ASEAN Contextualization: Comparative studies across Southeast Asian contexts identifying which  
findings represent generalisable developing economy patterns versus Malaysian-specific conditions. Such  
research would establish regional applicability and identify context-dependent adaptation requirements.  
Closing Perspective  
Strategic technology selection can leverage societal adoption patterns to advance educational equity. QR codes,  
transformed from specialised tools to ubiquitous interfaces, now offer budget-limited Malaysian institutions  
pathways to hands-on automation education previously economically inaccessible. However, this opportunity  
remains time limited as consumer technology evolves continuously. Educational institutions and policymakers  
must act deliberately to capture current opportunities whilst building frameworks for identifying future consumer  
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technology transitions. Engineering education accessibility requires neither major budget increases nor  
equipment philanthropy, merely strategic technology selection, evidence-based implementation, and  
commitment to equity as achievable within existing resource constraints  
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT  
Authors would like to thank Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM) for the technical and financial support  
to carry out this research work.  
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in  
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tag  
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a
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Ethical Considerations  
Ethical Approval  
This research involving human subjects was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of Universiti  
Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM). Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their  
involvement in the study. Participation was voluntary, and participants were informed of their right to withdraw  
at any time without penalty.  
Conflict of Interest  
The authors declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication  
of this article.  
Data Availability Statement  
The datasets generated and analysed during the current study, including technical performance measurements,  
educational evaluation results, and survey responses, are available from the corresponding author upon  
reasonable request. Raw data cannot be made publicly available due to institutional policies regarding research  
data management and participant privacy considerations. Summary statistics and aggregate findings are  
presented in full within this manuscript.  
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