INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XII December 2025  
Interpretations of Instrumented Bored Piles in Johor Bahru Old  
Alluvium Formation  
Liknaswaran Kobarajah., Khairul Anuar Bin Kassim., Ahmad Safuan Bin A Rashid., Norshakila Abdul  
Wahab*  
Department of Geotechnics and Transportation, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi  
Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia  
DOI: https://doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.91200075  
Received: 15 December 2025; Accepted: 22 December 2025; Published: 31 December 2025  
ABSTRACT  
In evaluating pile foundation performance, static load tests (SLT) play a critical role, as they offer a direct and  
reliable measure of how a pile responds under both working and ultimate load conditions. Traditionally, these  
tests focus on pile head load–displacement relationships. However, when piles are instrumented with vibrating-  
wire strain gauges (VWSG) and extensometers, the amount and quality of information obtained increase  
substantially. Such instrumentation allows designers and engineers to observe the mobilisation of shaft friction  
at different depths, distinguish the contribution of end-bearing resistance, monitor toe movement, as well as  
quantify elastic shortening along the pile shaft. Most importantly, it provides a clear understanding of how shaft  
friction and end-bearing components develop progressively with increasing pile displacement, forming a  
complete picture of the load transfer mechanism. Therefore, detailed interpretations of static load test results  
from instrumented bored piles constructed within the Johor Bahru Old Alluvium formation are carried out in this  
study. Through careful evaluation of strain distributions and load transfer profiles, ultimate shaft friction values  
of 6.35N for layers with SPT N-value ≤ 15, and 2.35N for layers with SPT N-value > 15, are established. These  
correlations offer meaningful insight into the behaviour of Old Alluvium materials under pile loading and  
provide practical parameters for use in design. The findings contribute directly to improved optimisation of pile  
lengths, particularly for projects with varying pile diameters and embedment depths in similar geological  
settings. By adopting design values grounded in instrumented test data, engineers may prevent unnecessary  
conservatism, reduce material usage, and achieve substantial savings in foundation construction costs while  
ensuring safety and performance.  
Keywords: Instrumented bored pile, Load transfer behaviour, SPT N-value, Ultimate shaft friction, Old  
alluvium formation.  
INTRODUCTION  
In Malaysia, bored piles are the most widely used foundation system to support heavily loaded structures such  
as major bridges and high-rise buildings. Their popularity arises from several key advantages including  
flexibility in diameter to suit varying ground conditions, minimal noise and vibration during installation, and  
adaptability to different loading requirements. Conventionally, the bored pile design of bored piles relies heavily  
on empirical correlations derived from Standard Penetration Test (SPT) data, which are generally attained during  
site investigations. Over time, these correlations have been refined local experience and continuous evaluation  
of pile load test results. However, numerous empirical and analytical methods exist for estimating both shaft  
friction and end bearing capacity, and the values obtained are highly dependent on both ground conditions and  
construction practices. Therefore, developing reliable, site-specific design parameters is crucial for the  
verification and optimisation of bored pile design.  
Most practicing engineers in Malaysia are typically require a maintained load test (MLT) to verify bored pile  
capacity. However, when more detailed insights into pile–soil interaction are required, particularly for design  
refinement or value engineering, a full-scale instrumented test piles are adopted. These piles are equipped with  
multi-level strain gauges, extensometers, and Osterberg cells or polyfoam soft toes, in some cases. Quick  
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maintained load tests are commonly used when the founding material is not prone to excessive creep or time-  
dependent deformation; otherwise, conventional long-duration MLT are conducted. In some projects, indirect  
testing methods such as high-strain dynamic tests or statnamic load tests are also implemented in verifying the  
capacity evaluation.  
To optimise bored pile design, it is vital to accurately predict both the design parameters and pile displacement  
under varying load levels. The load-transfer method proposed by Coyle and Reese (1966) offers a simple yet  
effective means of predicting load-displacement behaviour and load distribution along the pile. However, reliable  
application of this method depends on having a robust database of load-transfer parameters derived from fully  
instrumented piles tested in comparable ground conditions, certifying improved correlation between soil  
properties and pile geometry.  
The Old Alluvium formation, found extensively in Johor Bahru, and the surrounding offshore areas, exhibits  
additional challenges due to its geological complexity. Through an intense tropical weathering of Pleistocene-  
era mountain slopes (Gupta et al., 1987) and subsequently transported by braided river systems (Biswas, 1973),  
the Old Alluvium presents significant variability in deformability and strength (Orihara & Khoo, 1998). Tan et  
al. (1998) further mentioned that its shear strength does not correlate with depth. Therefore, this variability  
highlights the importance of establishing reliable load-transfer behaviour for bored piles founded in Old  
Alluvium.  
Conventional SLT only measure load and displacement at the pile head, allowing assessment of overall pile  
behaviour but offering limited insight into layer-specific shaft friction or the relative contributions of shaft and  
base resistance. As a result, optimising pile length and evaluating performance across different diameters  
becomes challenging and demanding. By installing vibrating-wire strain gauges (VWSG) and extensometers at  
multiple depths in an instrumented test pile, engineers can measure the load distribution, shaft friction, end  
bearing resistance, and their development with increasing pile movement, directly. Since the cost of such  
instrumentation is relatively small compared to the overall testing budget, the benefits, particularly in large-scale  
projects are significant. Eventually, the application of detailed design parameters and load-transfer behaviour is  
essential in achieving value-engineered bored pile designs and ensuring reliable displacement performance in  
the complex Old Alluvium formation of Johor Bahru.  
LITERATURE REVIEW  
Geological Background: Old Alluvium of Johor Bahru  
According to B. Alshameri (2010), alluvium is generally loose unconsolidated soil or sediments, eroded  
deposited and reshaped by water to make non-marine setting. In contrast, the older alluvium is semi consolidated  
and classified to two kinds of beds A1 overlay A2, otherwise to recognise this type of alluvium from the young  
one, it called older alluvium. Table 1 shows comparison between the alluvium and older alluvium in Johor state.  
Table 1 Comparison between the older alluvium and alluvium at Johor state  
Name  
Alluvium  
Older Alluvium  
Age  
Recent to sub-recent  
Unconsolidated  
Gravel, sand, and clay  
Pleistocene  
Descriptions  
Components  
Semi-consolidated sand and clay & boulder beds  
Type A1: Boulder beds  
Type A2: Gravel, sand, and clay  
Fluviatile and shallow-marine  
Origin  
Fluviatile and shallow-marine  
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The previous geological surveyed and geological map about Old alluvium has been outline by several researchers  
including Mohamad et al.(2011); Angeles and Bali (2017); Miller and Juilleret (2020); Nikolinakou and Whittle  
(2021), which mentioned the following:  
1. Old alluvium is located at south Johor.  
2. In general, it consists of coarse feldspathic (which come from granite source) sand with occasional rounded  
phenoclasts also there are represented for the gravelly clay, sandy gravel, sandy clay, silty clay, clayey sand  
and clay. It contains phenoclasts (fragment from rocks) of vein quartz, quartzite, sandstone, siltstone, shale  
hornfels, granite, granite porphyry, alaskite, aplite, rhyodacite, andesite and tuff.  
3. The condition of fresh older alluvium can be described as partly consolidated argillaceous members are  
intermediate between clay and mudstone and most the arenaceous are intermediate between sand and  
sandstone.  
4. In general, for the structure it can organise semi-flat lying with some traces for gentle folders which have  
less than 15˚ slope. Therefore, there are some beddings steeply inclined to vertical for a few feet in small  
tight folds.  
5. For Palaeogeography and age, the old alluvium occurred during Pleistocene period. However there some  
evidence direct to the shallow marine environment such as occurrence of plant remains and echinoid spines.  
According to Boon K. Tan (2000), Johor Bahru has the Old Alluvium as a unique soil deposit underlying much  
of the city and vicinities. These Old Alluvium forms mostly low-lying hillocks and has been sourced for  
construction fill materials. The Old Alluvium is a highly variable material with description ranging from hard  
clay to gravelly silty sand. Hence, enhancing the bored pile system in Old Alluvium formations is important  
because this ground typically exhibits highly variable and heterogeneous soil conditions, including alternating  
layers of sand, silt, clay, and gravel, which high risk in leading to uncertainty in load transfer and pile  
performance.  
During bored pile construction, stress relief and soil disturbance commonly occur, particularly in sandy and silty  
layers, resulting in reduced shaft resistance and increased pile settlement. In addition, achieving consistent end-  
bearing capacity is often challenging due to the presence of loose or partially cemented strata and fluctuating  
groundwater levels, which may cause base softening and borehole instability. As a result, pile behaviour in Old  
Alluvium is frequently governed by settlement and serviceability rather than ultimate capacity. Improving the  
bored pile system, through instrumentation, improved construction control or ground improvement techniques,  
helps to increase pile stiffness, reduce total and differential settlements, improve load mobilisation, and provide  
more reliable and predictable foundation performance for structures founded on this formation.  
Design of Geotechnical Capacity: Semi-empirical Method  
In tropical residual soils, bored piles are commonly adopted as deep foundations, where ground conditions are  
highly variable and often difficult to characterise. However, obtaining reliable undisturbed samples and  
conducting laboratory tests to determine strength and stiffness properties are extremely challenging. These soils  
exhibit significant spatial variability over short distances, while their friable and easily disturbed nature further  
complicates sampling and testing. As a result, theoretical design formulae become less practical, especially since  
many do not adequately account for soil disturbance, stress relief, and the partial reinstatement of stresses that  
occur during the construction of bored piles.  
Hence, semi-empirical design approaches have been widely developed to address these limitations. In particular,  
correlations between shaft resistance, base resistance, and Standard Penetration Test (SPT) N-values have  
become the industry norm. These correlations are typically based on uncorrected SPT N-values obtained prior  
to pile installation and have been refined through extensive local experience and back-analysis of pile load tests.  
Despite their simplicity, such correlations remain essential for practical design in complex tropical residual soils  
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where direct measurement of engineering properties is difficult to achieve reliably. Followings are the commonly  
used correlations for bored piles:  
fsu = Ks x SPT N-value (kPa)  
fbu = Kb x SPT N-value (kPa)  
(1)  
(2)  
Where:  
Ks = ultimate shaft resistance factor  
Kb = ultimate base resistance factor  
SPT N-value = Standard Penetration Tests blow counts (blows/300 mm)  
Load Deformation Analysis  
Until relatively recently, the displacement of single pile is calculated either analytically based on many  
simplifying assumptions or on an empirical basis through correlations with other pile tests in similar situations.  
In many situations, the displacement is not calculated at all but assumed to be satisfactory if the load did not  
exceed one third (1/3) of the ultimate load.  
However, with the advent of computers, several more sophisticated analyses are developed. These methods  
permit a far more realistic assessment of pile displacement because of the incorporation of the many factors that  
influenced pile displacement. The following are the three major categories for these various computer-based  
methods:  
1. Elastic Analytical Methods  
This method is based on elasticity techniques that employ Mindlin's equations to account for displacements  
within a mass of soil brought on by internal loading. Several investigators have used this approach but perhaps  
one of the most complete sets of solutions has been developed by Polous & Davis (1980).  
The technique involves the pile discretisation into several elements. It is then necessary to obtain mathematical  
expressions for the vertical displacement of the pile and the soil at each element in terms of the unknown stresses  
on the pile. The different equations can be solved to get the displacement at any given pile head load by applying  
the compatibility conditions to the pile and the soil. Details of these analytical methods are discussed in some  
detail in Polous & Davis (1980). Design charts for a wide range of pile conditions have been developed using  
dimensionless parameters. The elastic approach necessitates significant idealisation and simplification.  
Randolph & Wroth (1978) has developed an approximate closed form solution for the displacement of a pile in  
linear elastic soil under a given load.  
2. Numerical Methods  
Numerous researchers have developed numerical methods for the analysis of pile behaviour, such as the  
boundary element method and the finite element method. The methods in principle can model slip at the pile-  
soil interface and non-linear stress strain behaviour. However, they are relatively complex to use.  
3. Load Transfer Method  
The load transfer method was originally suggested by (Seed & Reese, 1957) with further refinements by (Coyle  
& Reese, 1966). The method is basically an iterative technique which is used to calculate load displacement  
characteristics at the head of the pile and thereby allow the construction of a full load displacement curve.  
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The method requires the pile to be divided into several small segments which are assumed to be connected by  
springs, are shown in Figure 1. A small displacement is then applied to the pile base, and by calculating the  
forces and displacements for each segment progressively up the pile shaft, the load at the head of the pile can be  
determined along with its vertical displacement. This process is repeated for several base displacements until a  
sufficient range of pile loads and displacements are obtained to construct a complete load displacement curve.  
To apply this method, it is necessary to know the load transfer characteristics of each small section of the pile  
shaft. These characteristics are given by the shaft resistance – shaft displacement curve that can be obtained from  
instrumented field tests, as shown in Figure 2.  
Figure 1 Load Transfer Method  
Figure 2 Shear Stress vs. Shear Displacement  
METHODOLOGY  
Data Collection  
The first stage of this study involved the identification and selection of five sites within the same project area  
underlain by the Johor Bahru Old Alluvium formation, where SLT had been conducted on a total of 13  
instrumented bored piles. All selected sites are predominantly underlain by weathered residual soils, mainly  
comprising silty sand, which are characteristic of the formation. A representative borehole profile together with  
the corresponding test pile instrumentation details is presented in Figure 3. The details of the 13 instrumented  
bored piles investigated in this study, obtained from the five sites within the project area, are summarised in  
Table 2. The collected data is comprehensive and of sufficient quality to support the objectives of this study. In  
addition to the instrumentation measurements obtained from vibrating wire strain gauges (VWSG) and rod  
extensometers, detailed subsurface and construction records are also available. These include SPT N-values,  
borehole logs, as well as piling, boring, and concreting records, thereby providing a robust basis for the  
interpretation and analysis of pile behaviour.  
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Correlation between SPT N-value and Ultimate Shaft Friction  
The SPT N-values were obtained from the nearest borehole close to the test pile. The SPT N-values were  
averaged between the strain gauge locations to correlate with the maximum shaft friction. It is noted that in many  
cases the mobilized shaft friction did not achieve the maximum value within the test load. The shaft friction  
values that did not reach the maximum were not included to derive the correlation. The maximum shaft  
resistances are determined directly from the uncorrected values of the SPT N-value obtained from Standard  
Penetration Test. The correlation adopted is as follows:  
fsu = Ks Ns (kPa)  
(3)  
Where:  
Ks = shaft friction factor  
Ns = Average SPT N-value along the pile shaft  
Generation of Load Transfer Curve  
The procedure used for generating the load transfer curves is summarised below:  
i. Assuming the strain in the steel is equal to the strain in the concrete at the same level, the load distributions  
in the pile at the strain gauge levels are computed as follows:  
Ps = εApEcomp  
(4)  
Where:  
Ps = pile load along shaft  
ε = measured strain from strain gauges  
Ap = cross-sectional area of the shaft at the plane of strain gauges  
Ecomp = composite modulus of concrete and steel at the strain gauge plane.  
Figure 3 Borehole profile results  
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Table 2 Details of the 13 instrumented bored piles  
Site Test pile no Pile diameter (mm) Pile length (m) Working load (kN)  
A
P1  
P2  
P3  
P4  
P5  
P1  
P1  
P2  
P3  
P4  
P1  
P1  
P2  
750  
47.0  
50.5  
40.0  
55.7  
55.7  
51.2  
48.2  
60.5  
34.3  
34.1  
41.5  
50.6  
45.5  
2,613  
5,222  
5,124  
3,289  
3,243  
8,375  
5,753  
4,697  
5,952  
8,461  
8,382  
14,900  
14,838  
1000  
1000  
750  
750  
B
C
1200  
1000  
900  
1000  
1200  
1200  
1500  
1500  
D
E
ii. Using the load distributions computed at the strain gauge levels, the average shaft resistance for each of the  
segment is computed as:  
fsm = (P top of segment – P bottom of segment) (π x pile diameter x segment length) (5)  
iii. Between the strain gauge levels, the pile is divided into segments. For each segment, the mid-segment  
displacement of the pile shaft is linearly interpolated between the displacement of the bottom and top of  
segment, that are taken using extensometers.  
iv. The same process is then repeated for the subsequent head load and head displacement and the corresponding  
strain gauge and extensometer readings along the pile length. Therefore, for each pile, the load transfer  
curves for shaft are generated for each pile segment and one load transfer curve for the base.  
Generation of Normalised Load Transfer Curves  
The following procedures are used in the derivation of normalised load transfer curves:  
1. After the generation of the load transfer curves, the ones with full mobilisation of the shaft frictions are  
selected.  
2. For each of the selected curves, a critical point on the curve is located. The critical point (fsc,zsc) selected on  
the curve satisfied one of the following:  
a.Point of the maximum shaft friction, or  
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b.The point where the slope of the load-transfer curve starts to become noticeably smaller (showing strain  
hardening response).  
3. The shaft displacements corresponding to these critical shaft frictions (fsc) were denoted as critical shaft  
displacements (zsc). These two parameters are known as the load transfer parameters.  
4. The shaft friction and shaft displacements are normalised with the critical shaft frictions and critical shaft  
displacements respectively.  
The same procedure used for the shaft is adopted for the normalisation of the base.  
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS  
These sites are overlain by comparatively weak alluvial layers having depths between 8m to 30m. The SPT N-  
values of these weak alluvial layers are generally less than 15, with the maximum mobilised friction from the  
test results is observed between 15 kPa to 120 kPa. The old alluvium that underlies the weak alluvium extends  
to depths beyond the toe of all piles, with the maximum mobilised friction from the test results is observed  
between 40 kPa to 130 kPa.  
At working loads, the following observations were made:  
a. The head displacements are between 3.56 mm and 9.74 mm, and the base displacements are between 0.40  
mm and 7.35 mm.  
b. The end bearing contributed only between 0.40% and 3.34% of the total capacity. The pile lengths are  
between 34.1 m and 60.5 m, and the end bearing contribution was negligible at the pile working loads.  
The end bearing contribution was negligible in these long piles, essentially it behaved as friction piles. Hence,  
no correlations between Kb with SPT N-value are developed.  
Figure 4 shows the correlation of ultimate shaft friction factor (Ks) for SPT N-value ≤ 15 (weak alluvium) and  
> 15 (old alluvium) respectively.  
Figure 4 Correlation between Standard Penetration Test (SPT) N-values and ultimate shaft friction, fsu) in Johor  
Bahru Old Alluvium  
The following correlations are proposed as guidelines for bored pile design:  
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a. For uncorrected SPT N-value equal or less than 15,  
fsu = 6.35 x SPT N-value (kPa)  
b. For uncorrected SPT N-value more than 15,  
fsu = 2.35 x SPT N-value (kPa)  
(6)  
(7)  
The following equations are proposed for the load transfer curves for shaft friction of piles based on the  
normalised load transfer curves obtained, as shown in Figure 5:  
For zs/zsc ≤ 1.0,  
fs/fsc = 0.22Ln(zs/zsc) + 1.01  
fs/fsc = -0.20(zs/zsc) + 1.21  
fs/fsc = 0.80  
(8)  
For 1.0 < zs/zsc ≤ 2.0,  
For zs/zc > 2.0,  
(9)  
(10)  
The following equations are proposed for the load transfer curves for end bearing of piles based on the  
normalised load transfer curves obtained, as shown in Figure 6:  
fb/fbc = 0.96(zb/zbc)5/6  
(11)  
Figure 5 Normalised shaft load–transfer curve  
Figure 6 Normalised base load–transfer curve  
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The derived Ks value for old alluvium fits well within the ranges presented by most past researchers as shown  
in Table 3.  
Table 3 Ultimate shaft factor (Ks) from previous researchers  
Previous Researchers  
Meyerhof (1976)  
Chin et al. (1985)  
Toh et al. (1989)  
Chan (1990)  
Ks  
1
2.5 – 5.0  
1.5 to 5  
3
Chang & Broms (1991)  
Tan (1998)  
2
2.6  
Chang (2005)  
2.0 - 3.0  
2.2  
Angeles and Bali (2017)  
Veeresh et al. (2017)  
2.3 - 4.4  
CONCLUSIONS  
In achieving safe and cost-effective pile foundation designs, pile load tests play a critical role, as site-specific  
shaft friction and end bearing parameters can be reliably established through instrumented pile load testing. In  
this study, instrumented bored pile load test data from the Johor Bahru Old Alluvium formation were compiled  
and evaluated to assess the influence of variability in SPT N-values on the mobilised shaft friction developed  
during pile loading.  
As illustrated in Figure 2, the mean ultimate shaft friction values are approximately 6.35 N for soils with SPT  
N-values ≤ 15 and 2.35 N for soils with SPT N-values > 15. Despite these representative values, a significant  
scatter was observed in the measured shaft friction, with ranges from 1 N to 3 N for SPT N-values ≤ 15 and from  
5 N to 7 N for SPT N-values > 15, indicating substantial inherent variability in the ground conditions. Besides,  
analysis of the distribution of shaft friction and end bearing resistance further indicates that the installed piles  
behave predominantly as friction piles, with more than 97 % of the working load being resisted by shaft friction.  
Based on the measured load transfer behaviour, the load transfer curves presented in Figures 5 and 6 are proposed  
for evaluating the load–displacement response of bored piles founded in the Johor Bahru Old Alluvium  
formation.  
In Malaysian practice, the design of bored piles in Old Alluvium formations is predominantly based on empirical  
correlations with SPT N-values, as adopted in Malaysia Public Work Department guidelines and common local  
practice. These approaches generally assume conservative mobilisation of shaft friction and end bearing and do  
not explicitly account for construction-induced disturbance, stress relief, or the progressive development of load  
transfer along the pile. By comparison, the correlations proposed in this study are developed from instrumented  
SLT results, allowing direct evaluation of shaft and base resistance under actual field loading conditions.  
Consequently, the proposed correlations provide a more representative description of pile–soil interaction in the  
Johor Bahru Old Alluvium formation while remaining compatible with parameters routinely obtained from  
standard site investigations. This offers a practical enhancement to existing design methods by improving  
reliability and reducing unnecessary conservatism without compromising safety.  
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However, to enhance practical application, it is recommended that a dedicated computational tool be developed  
to predict pile load–displacement behaviour using the derived load transfer curves, thereby supporting more  
reliable and economical pile design in this formation.  
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT  
Author would like to extend his sincere thanks to Prof. Khairul Anuar and Prof. Ahmad Safuan for their guidance  
in preparation of this research paper.  
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