Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) is a vital component of Nigeria's educational system,

designed to equip students with practical skills for employability and economic growth. However, despite its

significance, TVET in Nigerian secondary schools faces numerous challenges that hinder its effectiveness. This

study examines these challenges, including inadequate infrastructure, a shortage of qualified instructors,

attitudes. Recommendations emphasize the need for government commitment, industry collaboration, and

technological integration to align TVET with labor market demands. Without urgent reforms, Nigeria risks

perpetuating youth unemployment and missing opportunities for economic diversification. The findings

underscore the potential of TVET to drive national development if systemic challenges are addressed through

evidence-based policies and sustained investment.

Unemployment, Curriculum Reform, Industry Collaboration.

Technical and Vocational Education (TVE) is a critical component of secondary education designed to equip

students with practical skills, enhance employability, and foster economic growth (Okoro, 2019). In Nigeria,

the National Policy on Education (NPE), which mandates the inclusion of technical and vocational subjects in

secondary education to promote self-reliance and reduce unemployment (FRN, 2013). The policy emphasizes

the need for a balanced education system that combines theoretical knowledge with practical skills.

Unfortunately, the implementation of TVE has been marred by systemic weaknesses, including inadequate

funding, poor infrastructure, and societal bias against vocational training (Oviawe, Uwameiye, & Uddin, 2017).

One of the major challenges facing TVE in Nigerian secondary schools is inadequate infrastructure and obsolete

equipment. Many schools lack functional workshops, modern tools, and up-to-date training materials, making it

difficult for students to acquire relevant technical skills (Eze, 2020). Additionally, there is a shortage of qualified

TVE teachers, as many instructors lack industry experience or updated pedagogical training (Okolie, Elom, &

Inyiagu, 2019). This deficiency affects the quality of vocational instruction and students' preparedness for the

Another critical issue is poor funding and government neglect. TVE programs often receive minimal budgetary

graduates with skills that are not marketable (Uwaifo, 2018). This gap contributes to high youth unemployment,

as many school leavers lack the necessary competencies for available technical jobs (National Bureau of

Statistics [NBS], 2022).

Given Nigeria’s rising unemployment rate (NBS, 2022) and the increasing demand for skilled labor in sectors

such as construction, manufacturing, and information technology, revitalizing TVE in secondary schools is

crucial. This study seeks to examine these challenges comprehensively and propose strategies for improvement.

Addressing these issues could enhance the quality of vocational education, improve students' employability, and

contribute to national economic growth.

Nigeria faces a critical youth unemployment crisis, with rates exceeding 40% (National Bureau of Statistics

[NBS], 2023). Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) is designed to equip students with

can help policymakers align educational outcomes with industrial demands, fostering sustainable economic

growth. Despite its potential, TVET suffers from poor societal perception, with many students and parents

viewing it as a last resort for academically weak learners (Ayonmike et al., 2015). This stigma contributes to

low enrollment and undermines the program’s impact. Research into public attitudes can inform strategies to

rebrand vocational education through awareness campaigns and incentives, encouraging broader participation.

Another major issue is the outdated TVET curriculum, which often fails to reflect current industry needs

(UNESCO-UNEVOC, 2021). Many programs still teach obsolete skills, leaving graduates ill-prepared for

modern job markets. This research can identify gaps in the curriculum and propose updates, such as integrating

emerging technologies like artificial intelligence, renewable energy, and robotics into vocational training.

Inadequate funding and poor infrastructure further hinder TVET delivery. Many secondary schools lack

programs.

While Nigeria has policies like the National Policy on Education (2013) advocating for TVET, weak

implementation limits their effectiveness (Federal Ministry of Education, 2013). Evaluating these policy gaps

can lead to stronger enforcement mechanisms and better alignment between educational planning and labor

market needs. Finally, Nigeria’s informal sector employs over 80% of the workforce (International Labour

Organization [ILO], 2022). Effective TVET programs can empower youths with entrepreneurial skills, enabling

self-employment and innovation. Research can explore how vocational training can be tailored to support

informal sector growth, fostering job creation and economic resilience.

secondary schools in Nigeria?

education in Nigerian secondary schools.

Views on educational challenges as interconnected within a larger system involving policies, infrastructure,

teachers, students, and societal factors. Addressing these issues requires a holistic approach targeting multiple

components simultaneously. It offers a comprehensive framework for understanding the complex challenges

faced by Technical and Vocational Education (TVE) in Nigerian secondary schools. By viewing the educational

sustainable and responsive educational environment that prepares students for the demands of the modern

workforce (Bertalanffy, 1968; Okoye & Odili, 2018). Therefore, adopting a systems perspective can facilitate

the development of integrated strategies that enhance the quality and relevance of technical and vocational

education in Nigeria.

This theory Explains how new ideas and practices spread within society or organizations. Barriers to adopting

modern vocational techniques in Nigerian schools—such as resistance to change or lack of awareness—can be

addressed through better communication, training, and stakeholder involvement. It developed by Everett Rogers

(2003), offers a valuable framework for understanding the adoption and implementation of new technologies

and pedagogical practices within technical and vocational education (TVE) in Nigerian secondary schools.

addressing socio-cultural factors to facilitate smoother adoption processes and improve the quality of technical

and vocational education (Rogers, 2003). Ultimately, applying the Diffusion of Innovation Theory can inform

The historical development of Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Nigeria is rooted in

the colonial era, where vocational skills were primarily intended to support agricultural and industrial

development (Akinlabi & Akinlabi, 2019). Post-independence Nigeria continued to emphasize vocational

education as a means of fostering self-reliance and economic growth, leading to the establishment of various

technical institutes and secondary schools with specialized curricula (Olaniyan & Ojo, 2020). However, despite

these efforts, the sector has faced persistent challenges including inadequate funding, outdated curricula, and a

shortage of qualified teachers, which hinder the effective implementation of TVET programs (Eze et al., 2019).

These issues are compounded by socio-economic factors that influence student enrollment and retention in

has identified significant issues such as inadequate funding, outdated curriculum, insufficient infrastructure, and

a lack of qualified teachers (Adebayo & Oluwatoyin, 2019). However, there remains a notable gap in empirical

AND (“Nigeria” or “Nigerian”)

eligible papers were snowballed to identify further studies. Grey literature was targeted through site-specific

searches of Nigerian government portals (Federal Ministry of Education, NBTE, UBEC) and institutional

repositories, using the same keyword matrix. Finally, hand-searching of key journals on vocational education

Nigerian secondary schools is the lack of adequate infrastructure and training facilities. Many schools do not

have functional workshops or laboratories, and where these exist, they are often poorly equipped and maintained

(Ezekiel & Yusufu, 2023). This lack of infrastructure severely limits students’ ability to gain hands-on

result, many schools rely on underqualified staff who lack the technical competence necessary to deliver quality

instruction.

strong partnerships, students have limited access to internships, apprenticeships, and job placements—essential

world exposure further undermines the employability and relevance of TVET graduates in the labor market.

and weak industry linkages leaving many graduates unemployable.

A recurring issue across these studies is the disconnect between TVET curricula and labor market demands.

Mbah and Azubike (2015) stress that vocational subjects like Agriculture and Technical Drawing suffer from

poor teaching methods and a lack of trained instructors. Okoli et al. (2020) attribute this to a policy-

implementation gap, where national policies (e.g., Nigeria’s National Policy on Education) fail to translate into

practical classroom outcomes due to corruption and inadequate monitoring. This issue is not unique to Nigeria.

Dhall (2024), examining the Indian context, reports that vocational courses often lack relevance to industry

needs. Similarly, Chikoore and Museva (2014) in Zimbabwe found that outdated curricula and delayed policy

of adequate infrastructure and training facilities. Many schools lack well-equipped workshops, laboratories, and

modern tools necessary for practical learning. Out-dated equipment, sometimes from the 1980s or earlier, hinders

students from acquiring relevant and up-to-date skills required in today’s technology-driven industries.

with industry practices. Teachers often express low motivation due to poor remuneration, lack of incentives, and

outcomes.

Funding remains a persistent constraint. Technical and vocational education is expensive to run, requiring

consumables, equipment maintenance, and workshop materials. However, most state and federal budgets

prioritize conventional education streams over vocational programs. The Universal Basic Education (UBE) and

similar schemes often do not allocate sufficient funds specifically for TVE.

A recurring issue is the negative societal perception of vocational education. Many Nigerian parents and students

view TVE as inferior to academic or professional paths. The cultural preference for white-collar jobs discourages

youth from embracing vocational training. This perception results in low enrollment in TVE programs and

contributes to the high youth unemployment rate, as many students are unprepared for self-employment or skilled

reflecting the skills demanded by employers. This mismatch contributes to the skills gap in Nigeria where

Modern technical education requires ICT integration for design, simulation, and digital fabrication.

Unfortunately, many schools lack access to computers, internet connectivity, and modern instructional

technologies. This limits students’ exposure to global standards in vocational practices. Implication: Recruiting

and retaining qualified teachers, along with providing in-service training, is essential to improve teaching

Technical and vocational education in Nigeria remains male dominated, especially in trades such as engineering,

building technology, and auto mechanics. Cultural stereotypes and gender norms discourage female participation

student competences or graduate employment, while qualitative interpretations are inevitably coloured by

researcher subjectivity and self-reported questionnaire/interview data are susceptible to social-desirability bias;

moreover, restricted access to official budget and procurement documents curtailed verification of the financial

and infrastructural barriers described.

and jobs, yet Nigeria’s secondary-school segment still labours under a colonial legacy that privileged academic

learning and branded TVE “second-class”, a stigma reinforced post-independence by chronic under-funding,

the current period offers a critical window to address these challenges with comprehensive reforms. By learning

from global best practices and contextualizing solutions locally, Nigeria can enhance the quality and impact of

TVET, contributing meaningfully to national development and youth empowerment.

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