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ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XIV October 2025 | Special Issue on Management
The Mediating Effect of Risk Perception on Factors Influencing
International Tourists’ Intention to Travel to Malaysia
Mohd Yuhafidz bin Mohd Yusof*, Zaileen Elina binti Arifin, Nadzirah binti Nasir, Fazlin Shasha binti
Abdullah
Faculty of Education and Humanities, UNITAR University College, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
*
Corresponding author
DOI:
https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.914MG00197
Received: 07 October 2025; Accepted: 22 October 2025; Published: 13 November 2025
ABSTRACT
This study explores the mediating role of risk perception in the relationship between past travel experience,
sensation-seeking personality, and international tourists’ intention to visit Malaysia. Based on survey data from
384 respondents, results show that past travel experience and sensation-seeking personality significantly
influence travel intention but have no effect on risk perception. Unexpectedly, risk perception demonstrates a
positive association with travel intention, indicating that higher perceived risk does not necessarily discourage
travel. The study contributes to tourism literature by highlighting the complex role of risk in decision-making
and recommends improving destination safety, crisis preparedness, service quality, and communication
strategies.
Keywords: risk perception, past travel experience, sensation-seeking personality, intention to travel
INTRODUCTION
The tourism industry has emerged as the primary source of employment and revenue for many nations, leading
to a significant reliance on the sector (Clayton, 2014). As shown in Table 1, international tourist arrivals
increased steadily from 1,044 million to a peak of 1,462 million from 2012 until 2024, while receipts grew from
$1,132 billion to $1,480 billion. However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, arrivals dropped drastically to 406
million in 2020 and remained low in 2021 (data unavailable) before rebounding to 960 million in 2022 and 1,300
million in 2023. Receipts followed a similar trend, falling to $562 billion in 2020 and recovering to $1,200
billion in 2022 and $1,500 billion in 2023. By 2024, arrivals are estimated at 1,400 million, with receipts
projected to reach $1,600 billion, indicating a near full recovery to pre-pandemic levels.
Table 1. International Tourist Arrival and Receipts (2012 – 2024)
Year
International Tourist Arrivals (in million)
International Tourist Receipts (in USD)
2024
1400
1600(estimate)
2023
1300
1500
2022
960(approx.)
1200(approx.)
2021
-
607
2020
406
562
2019
1462
1480
2018
1408
1454
2017
1333
1347
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2016
1243
1250
2015
1197
1222
2014
1143
1281
2013
1097
1219
2012
1044
1132
Source: UNWTO (https://www.unwto.org/global-and-regional-tourism-performance)
Malaysia's tourism market has been expanding in recent years, with both inbound arrivals and outbound
departures experiencing steady growth and expected to continue rising annually (https://www.tourism.gov.my/).
Forecasts by Business Monitor International (BMI) suggest that visitor numbers from these regions will continue
to grow steadily. While arrivals from other regions are also expected to rise, these markets remain susceptible to
potential economic downturns that could impact travel demand. Both domestic and international tourists play a
crucial role in sustaining the tourism industry, making it one of the key contributors to the economy (Mageswari
et al., 2014) through foreign exchange earnings, attracting investments, and generating employment
opportunities (Witt & Witt, 1995). The number of international tourist arrivals to Malaysia has shown an upward
trend.
Table 2 presents data on tourist arrivals in Malaysia along with total earnings from 2006 to 2023. From 2006 to
2019, Malaysia's tourist arrivals increased from 17.55 million to 26.10 million, with tourism receipts rising from
RM 36.27 billion to RM 86.14 billion. The highest number of arrivals was recorded in 2014 (27.44 million),
while receipts peaked in 2019 (RM 86.14 billion). In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic caused a drastic decline,
with arrivals dropping to 4.33 million and receipts to RM 12.69 billion. The situation worsened in 2021, with
only 134,728 arrivals and RM 238.7 million in receipts. Recovery began in 2022, with 10.07 million arrivals
and RM 28.23 billion in receipts, followed by 20.14 million arrivals and RM 71.31 billion in 2023, indicating a
strong post-pandemic rebound.
Table 2. Arrival of tourists with a total earning assessment (2006-2023)
Year
Arrival of total tourists (in million)
Receipt (RM) billion
2006
17,546,863
36,271.7
2007
20,972,822
46,070.0
2008
22,052,488
49,561.2
2009
23,646,191
53,367.7
2010
24,577,196
56,492.5
2011
24,714,324
58,315.9
2012
25,032,708
60,556.7
2013
25,715,460
65,443.3
2014
27,437,315
71,998.8
2015
25,721,251
69,119.6
2016
26,757,392
82,098.2
2017
25,948,459
82,165.0
2018
25,832,354
84,135.2
2019
26,100,784
86,143.5
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2020
4,332,722
12,688.2
2021
134,728
238.7
2022
10,070,964
28,228.3
2023
20,141,846
71,308.5
Source: Strategic Planning, Tourism Malaysia with the cooperation of Immigration Department, Malaysia
Data in Table 3 illustrates the contribution of travel and tourism to Malaysia’s GDP from 2012 to 2024. The
sector’s contribution fluctuated over the years, peaking at 15.9% in 2019 just before the COVID-19 pandemic.
During the pandemic, its share declined but remained significant, dropping to 12.8% in 2021. A strong rebound
followed, with contributions rising to 14% in 2022 and 15.1% in 2023. However, in 2024, the share decreased
to 10.5%, not due to sectoral weakness, but because of higher overall GDP growth. Overall, the data underscores
the tourism sector's resilience and vital role in Malaysia’s economy, with notable volatility influenced by external
factors such as global health crises.
Table 3. Malaysia Contribution of Travel and Tourism to GDP
Years
GDP (%)
2024
10.5
2023
15.1
2022
14
2021
12.8
2020
14.1
2019
15.9
2018
13.3
2017
13.6
2016
13.9
2015
13.5
2014
14.3
2013
13.8
2012
12.9
Source: Department of Statistics Malaysia
Problem Statement
The tourism industry is highly sensitive to risks at local, national, and global levels (Hasan, Ismail & Islam,
2017). Therefore, it is important to understand what affects people’s decisions to travel when risks are involved
in order to build a more sustainable tourism industry. Moreover, past studies have looked at risk perception in
areas outside tourism. For example, Taylor and Snyder (2017) studied how risk perception affects employee
safety behaviour, while Tinoco et al. (2019) looked at how it influences the use of protective equipment. Others,
like Jafari et al. (2019) and Hassan et al. (2020), focused on workplace accidents and public trust during COVID-
19. Since risk perception involves many aspects (Sharifpour, 2012), this study takes a broader view to understand
how it affects international tourists’ travel decisions. While earlier studies focused on factors like motivation,
satisfaction, destination image, place attachment, country image, and personal traits, they often looked at these
factors in isolation. This research fills that gap by combining several factors and examining how risk perception
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influences tourists’ intentions. It specifically looks at how past travel experience and sensation-seeking
personality affect the intention to visit Malaysia, with risk perception acting as a link between them.
LITERATURE REVIEWS
Intention serves as a predictor of behaviour, as suggested by Fishbein and Azjen (1975), Hsu and Crotts (2006),
Lenggogeni (2015). It refers to an individual's thoughts about the actions they plan to take in the future (Rhodes
& Bruijn, 2013). In tourism research, travel intention refers to a tourist’s cognitive and emotional readiness to
visit a specific destination (Baker & Crompton, 2000; Ahn et al., 2013) and is typically assessed as a probability
of future travel behaviour (Noh, 2006). Ahmad et al.,2024 further conceptualize travel intention as a future-
oriented likelihood shaped by affective attachment and evaluative perceptions of a destination. Such intention
has been shown to significantly influence destination choice and travel behaviour (Bae & Chang, 2020; Sánchez-
Cañizares et al., 2020). Together, these perspectives highlight intention as a crucial psychological driver in the
tourism decision-making process.
Behavioural intention is a foundational construct in tourism research, reflecting an individual’s cognitive and
emotional inclination to engage in a specific future behaviour. Swan (1981) conceptualized it as a person’s
planned or anticipated course of action, while Woodside et al. (1994) emphasized its probabilistic nature
referring to the perceived chance that a tourist will visit a destination within a given timeframe. In contemporary
tourism literature, behavioural intention is commonly understood as the willingness or motivation of tourists to
visit a destination, shaped by psychological factors such as attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived
behavioural control. For instance, Abdul Muhaemin and Gani (2024) define behavioural intention in the context
of Islamic tourism as tourists’ readiness to travel to Malaysia, driven by personal attitudes, social influences, and
their perceived ability to make and execute the travel decision.
Travel intention, as a subset of behavioural intention, emerges prior to travel and is shaped by evaluative beliefs,
perceived social norms, and situational constraints (Moutinho, 1987). Hennessey et al. (2010) further argue that
the formation of intention results from a chain of psychological decisions influenced by individual attitudes and
external pressures. This view aligns with the Theory of Planned Behaviour, which identifies attitude, subjective
norms, and perceived behavioural control as key predictors of intention (Ajzen, 1991). Empirical findings
support this framework in the Malaysian context: Abdul Muhaemin and Gani (2024) found that international
visitors’ intention to travel to Malaysia is significantly shaped by their attitudes, perceived social expectations,
and their confidence in managing potential travel constraints.
Risk Perception
The tourism industry is highly susceptible to various forms of risk, including natural disasters, political
instability, terrorism, health crises, and other human-made or environmental threats (Hasan, Ismail, & Islam,
2017; Williams & Balaz, 2013). These risks can severely impact destination image, tourist safety, and,
ultimately, travel demand. In this context, risk perception defined as tourists’ subjective evaluation of potential
hazards or adverse consequences associated with a travel destination emerges as a key determinant of travel
behaviour. It encompasses multiple dimensions, such as health, safety, environmental, and socio-political risks,
all of which influence destination image and travel intentions (Carballo et al., 2021).
The tourism product, by nature, is intangible, inseparable, and perishable. These characteristics make risk an
inherent part of the tourism experience. Unlike goods that can be tested before purchase, tourism requires a
psychological leap of faith often associated with the expectation of pleasure and safety. When negative events
such as riots, natural disasters, pandemics, or political conflicts occur, they generate negative perceptions that
significantly deter tourists from visiting those destinations (Sönmez et al., 1999; Williams & Balaz, 2015; Raval
& Fichadia, 2007).
Risk perception is not a new concept. It was first introduced by Bauer (1960) in the field of consumer behaviour
and later applied to tourism decision-making in 1987. Since then, it has been examined across multiple
disciplines, including psychology, geography, sociology, and political science. In tourism, it refers to tourists’
intuitive judgments and emotional responses to perceived threats in the travel environment (Chen & Zhang,
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2012a). Conceptually, it is the subjective expectation of potential loss, where individuals assess the probability
and severity of uncertain outcomes (Dowling & Staelin, 1994; Dholakia, 2001).
Tourism-related risks are multidimensional, covering physical, financial, psychological, health, social,
economic, and time-related threats, as well as opportunity loss. These perceived risks play a crucial role in
shaping tourists’ expectations, evaluations of service quality, and overall satisfaction (Karl & Schmude, 2017;
Fuchs & Reichel, 2011; Chew & Jahari, 2014; Tavitiyaman & Qu, 2013; Cui et al., 2016). Risk perception is
also highly subjective and influenced by several factors, including the type of risk, destination attributes, tourist
demographics (e.g., gender, cultural background, past experience), and the quality of destination management
and crisis communication strategies (Carballo et al., 2021).
At its core, risk perception involves evaluating the probability and potential impact of adverse events such as
illness, injury, or even death (Sjöberg et al., 2004). It reflects not only cognitive judgments but also emotional
reactions such as fear and anxiety, which can significantly influence travel-related decision-making (Reisinger
& Mavondo, 2005). For example, heightened risk perception may lead tourists to cancel or postpone trips, avoid
certain destinations, or choose alternative, “safer” travel options.
Several psychological and contextual factors further influence how risk is perceived. Voluntariness is one such
factor risks that are voluntarily assumed (e.g., adventure travel) are often perceived as less threatening than those
imposed without choice (Renn, 1992). Perceived control also shapes risk assessments; individuals tend to feel
less threatened by risks they believe they can manage (e.g., traffic) compared to those that feel uncontrollable,
such as pandemics (Chen et al., 2020). The delay of consequences where negative effects appear long after
exposure, such as in the case of radiation can also alter risk perception. Moreover, man-made risks are often
perceived more negatively than natural ones due to their avoidability and perceived culpability. Media coverage
plays a significant role in amplifying risk awareness and fear, particularly during crises. Over time, however,
familiarity and habituation can reduce perceived risk, as individuals adapt to living with persistent threats
(Hopkin, 2012).
Past Travel Experience
Past travel experience refers to the practical and accumulated episodes of travel that tourists have gained from
previous trips. These experiences play a crucial role in shaping tourists’ perceptions, attitudes, and behavioural
intentions toward future travel. According to Jiang et al. (2022), the depth of past travel experience significantly
moderates tourists’ knowledge, risk perception, and travel decision-making processes. More extensive travel
experience fosters greater confidence and resilience, positively influencing travel intention even in the face of
perceived risks.
Travel experiences are multidimensional, commonly categorized into learning (acquiring new knowledge),
enjoyment (seeking pleasure and joy), and escape (relief from routine life), all of which contribute to a more
enriching and positive travel encounter (Kang & Gretzel, 2012). These experiences emerge through interactions
with service providers, local communities, and fellow tourists, as well as through tourism products such as
transportation, accommodation, and attractions. Emotions such as joy, love, and surprise along with cultural
heritage and distinctive destination features, further enhance the overall experience (Hosany & Gilbert, 2010;
Cetin & Bilgihan, 2015).
Importantly, past travel experience has been shown to influence satisfaction, revisit intention, and destination
loyalty (Latiff & Ng, 2015). Attributes such as spontaneity, adventure, novelty, and relaxation contribute to the
richness of a travel experience and ultimately shape tourist satisfaction. Empirical findings also indicate that
incorporating past travel experience into travel behaviour models enhances their predictive power.
The Effect of Past Travel Experience on Risk Perception
Traveling to other countries can come with different risks, such as getting hurt, losing money, feeling stressed,
or wasting time. How tourists see and react to these risks called risk perception is influenced by their past travel
experiences, age, and how often they travel. Research shows that people who had bad experiences before, like
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getting sick or facing political problems during a trip, often feel more worried and are less likely to travel again
(Öhman, 2017; Bassil, 2014).
On the other hand, people with more travel experience usually feel more comfortable and confident when making
travel decisions (Kinnunen, 2013). They tend to perceive lower levels of risk and rely less on external sources
like news or social media when choosing a destination. In contrast, new or less-experienced travellers often
depend heavily on second-hand information such as opinions from friends, media reports, or online content to
assess safety and suitability (Teitler-Regev et al., 2015; Karl, 2018). This reliance on external sources is
especially evident among younger generations. Supporting this, a recent study by Fauziyah and Sudradjat (2025)
found that educational travel vlogs significantly influence Generation Z’s intention to travel, helping reduce
uncertainty and build trust in a destination. These vlogs serve as a substitute for direct experience, particularly
for novice travellers who lack personal exposure, by providing virtual familiarity and lowering perceived risks.
The Effect of Past Travel Experience on Intention to Travel
Past travel experience significantly influences tourists' behavioural intentions and serves as a crucial information
source for future travel decisions (Kim, 2014). Positive experiences, such as enjoyment, cultural immersion, and
ease of travel, enhance revisit intentions, while negative experiences may deter future visits (Khasawneh &
Alfandi, 2019; Zhang et al., 2016; Mazursky, 1989; Zeithaml, 1981; Sönmez & Graefe, 1998a). Jiang et al.
(2022) found that past travel experience significantly moderates the effects of knowledge, tourism self-identity,
and perceived risk. Specifically, repeat visitors tend to exhibit greater perceived behavioural control, stronger
alignment with subjective norms, and more positive attitudes toward travel factors that reinforce their intention
to travel, even in uncertain or high-risk environments. Past travel experience consists of cognitive (learning,
history, service) and affective (emotions like joy and excitement) elements, both of which shape tourists'
decisions (Adhikari & Bhattacharya, 2015). Studies suggest that familiarity with a destination reduces perceived
travel risks, increasing the likelihood of return visits (Lepp & Gibson, 2003). However, some tourists seek new
experiences rather than revisiting familiar places (Chandralal & Valenzuela, 2013).
Past experiences also impact participation in tourism-related activities, such as sporting events, where previous
engagement increases future participation (Kaplanidou & Gibson, 2010; Wu & Liu, 2017). In some cases, past
experiences can discourage travel, particularly if tourists desire novelty or if experiences evoke negative
emotions, as observed in dark tourism studies (Zhang et al., 2016). Familiarity with a destination moderates the
effect of country image and attitudes on travel intentions, as demonstrated in research involving Tanzanian
students visiting Korea (Kim & Kwon, 2018).
Furthermore, past experiences play a crucial role in destination loyalty, as satisfied tourists are more likely to
return and recommend the destination (Um et al., 2006). Studies confirm that satisfaction fosters loyalty,
emphasizing the need for tourism providers to enhance service quality and create valuable experiences (San
Martin et al., 2013; Mendes & Oom, 2010). Tourists' attitudes and behaviours evolve based on their travel
experiences, influenced by factors such as cultural exposure, language barriers, and interaction with locals
(Tomljenovic, 2010; Ward & Berno, 2011; Yilmaz & Tasci, 2015). Negative experiences can reshape
perceptions, reducing future travel intentions (Nyaupane et al., 2016). A study by Çelİk (2019) found that
domestic tourists with no travel experience in a specific region held higher prejudices, while those with prior
visits exhibited positive attitude changes. Ultimately, tourists' travel decisions are shaped by personal
experiences, recommendations, and media portrayals, highlighting the significance of managing destination
image and service quality (Yu et al., 2006).
Sensation-Seeking Personality
Psychographic factors such as personality, lifestyle, and motivations have long been recognized as key
influences on tourist behaviour and travel intentions (Wu et al., 2011). Early foundational work by Cohen (1972)
categorized tourists based on their preferences for novelty and familiarity into four types: drifters (high novelty,
low familiarity), explorers (moderate novelty), individual mass tourists (moderate familiarity), and organized
mass tourists (high familiarity, low novelty). Building on this concept, Plog (1974, 2002) introduced a
psychographic model classifying tourists as psychocentric (risk-averse, favouring familiar destinations),
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allocentric (adventure-seeking, drawn to novel destinations), and midcentric (exhibiting traits of both extremes).
These models established the importance of personality and risk tolerance in travel preferences.
Later, Gretzel et al. (2004) expanded this perspective by proposing 12 distinct tourist types based on lifestyle
and interests, emphasizing that motivations and personal values significantly influence destination choice. More
recently, Wu et al. (2011) further affirmed that psychographic traits are strong predictors of travel intention,
helping explain variations in tourist behaviour. The role of sensation seeking was highlighted by Japutra et al.
(2021), who found that tourists with a high need for stimulation are more likely to travel to exciting, novel
destinations and are also more inclined to recommend them to others.
Despite varying approaches to measuring psychographics, researchers commonly use Activity-Interest-Opinion
(AIO) concepts to assess behaviour (Cahill, 2006; Samdin & Abdul, 2015). Psychographics also include
personality, values, and lifestyles (Reisinger & Mavondo, 2005). Different personality-based segmentation
models exist, such as novelty-seeking groups (Weaver et al., 2009) and sensation-seeking traits (Zuckerman,
1979, 1984, 1990). The Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS) was used to measure risk-taking tendencies in tourism
(Pizam et al., 2004) but faced criticism for outdated language and forced-choice formats (Arnett, 1994; Qi et al.,
2009). To address these issues, Hoyle et al. (2002) introduced the Brief Sensation Seeking Scale (BSSS), a
refined version with seven items to evaluate thrill-seeking behaviour more effectively.
The Effect of Sensation-Seeking Personality on Risk Perception
Sensation-seeking is a key personality trait that affects how people view travel risks. These individuals crave
adventure and new experiences, so they tend to perceive travel dangers differently compared to more cautious
people. While most tourists may avoid travel during crises like pandemics or political unrest, sensation seekers
are often less affected by such concerns (Li et al., 2021). They're likely to use mental strategies like dismissing
risks or seeking reassurance to ease anxiety and keep their travel motivation high.
Satar et al. (2023) found that sensation seekers are less influenced by fear-based media or cultural warnings.
Instead, they focus on the excitement of travel and may downplay any potential risks. This mindset helps them
maintain strong travel intentions even when others hesitate. In short, sensation-seeking reduces the impact of
perceived risks on travel decisions making thrill-seekers more likely to travel in uncertain situations.
The Effect of Sensation-Seeking Personality on Intention to Travel
Personality, especially sensation seeking, plays an important role in shaping travel behaviour. High sensation
seekers enjoy new, exciting, and sometimes risky experiences, making them more likely to choose adventurous
trips (Pizam et al., 2001; Plog, 2002). In contrast, low sensation seekers prefer safe and familiar activities like
shopping or cultural tours.
Research shows that during the COVID-19 pandemic, many people reduced travel due to health risks. However,
high sensation seekers often kept or even increased their travel plans, as they saw the risk as acceptable and were
motivated by the desire for thrill and novelty (Gursoy & Chi, 2020; Kim & Lee, 2021). These individuals tend
to be less influenced by fear and more focused on the experience itself. Overall, sensation-seeking tourists are
more willing to travel despite risks, which helps explain differences in travel intentions during uncertain times.
Risk Perception and Intention to Travel
Risk perception refers to how individuals judge the likelihood and seriousness of potential harm, particularly
when making decisions in uncertain situations like travel. It is shaped by both rational thinking and emotional
responses, such as fear or anxiety (Falahuddin et al., 2020; Wolff et al., 2019). During crises like the COVID-
19 pandemic, risk perception becomes especially important, as it directly influences tourists’ willingness to
travel and their choice of destination.
Recent studies highlight how perceived risk can reduce travel intention. Chan (2021) found that during the
pandemic, tourists were more cautious and often avoided international travel, choosing safer alternatives such
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as staycations or short local trips. This shows that high perceived risk especially related to health and safety can
shift travel preferences significantly. Satar et al. (2023) emphasized that risk perception varies among individuals
and can be influenced by personal traits, previous experiences, and media exposure. For example, tourists who
frequently follow media updates may perceive greater risk, which lowers their intention to travel. Similarly,
Falahuddin et al. (2021) explained that when travellers feel uncertain about safety, their perception of risk
increases, leading to hesitation or cancellation of travel plans.
Although past research has explored various types of risks such as financial, physical, or social recent work
suggests that perceived health risk has become a dominant factor post-pandemic. This shift highlights the need
for destinations to rebuild trust by improving safety measures and communicating them clearly to potential
tourists. In the Malaysian context, studies have been relatively limited, though some have addressed tourist risk
perceptions in urban areas (Amir et al., 2012), coastal destinations (Yang et al., 2014), and rural islands (Supani
& Abd Hamid, 2020). However, updated research is needed to understand how international tourists currently
perceive risks when considering travel to Malaysia, especially in the post-COVID environment.
Risk Perceptions as a Mediator
Many studies have shown that risk perception often acts as a bridge between past experiences and future
decision-making. For example, Demuth et al. (2016) found that individuals who had gone through stressful
evacuation events like property damage or emotional loss were more likely to act cautiously in future
emergencies, depending on how they perceived the risk. In tourism, Polas et al. (2019) found a similar pattern:
past travel experiences influenced medical tourists' decisions through their perception of risk. In the same vein,
Makhdoomi and Baba (2019) highlighted that certain psychological factors such as perceived value, satisfaction,
and attitude can influence the relationship between how tourists view a destination and their intention to visit. A
destination with good reviews and a strong image, for instance, may lead to greater satisfaction and encourage
travel especially when risk perception is favourable. Likewise, Riaz and Hunjra (2015) showed that
psychological traits like risk-taking behaviour and how problems are framed affect decision-making in financial
contexts, again with risk perception serving as a key mediator.
When it comes to tourism, especially during uncertain times like the COVID-19 pandemic, risk perception
becomes even more central. Satar et al. (2023) found that travel risk perception plays a positive mediating role
in shaping travel intentions during the pandemic. In other words, tourists may not cancel trips simply because of
health concerns, but because they perceive the risk as high. This can lead them to delay, change, or cancel travel
plans altogether. Overall, previous literature has linked risk perception to key influences like past experience
and sensation-seeking personality. However, recent findings emphasize the importance of viewing risk
perception as a dynamic factor that translates external experiences into internal decisions, especially in times of
global uncertainty. Understanding how risk perception mediates these relationships can help destination
marketers and tourism planners better shape strategies to build travellers confidence.
However, there remains a gap in research exploring how risk perception mediates the relationship between
independent constructs and travel intentions, highlighting the need for further investigation. From the literature
reviews and related theories, the theoretical framework can be illustrated as in Figure 1. The theoretical
framework describes the relationship of factors influencing international tourists’ intention to travel by having
risk perception as a mediator.
Figure 1. Theoretical Framework
Past travel experience
Sensation seeking
Risk perception
Intention to travel
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This study investigates the travel intentions of international tourists visiting Malaysia, focusing on those with
prior travel experience. Due to the impracticality of surveying the entire population, convenience sampling was
employed, and a sample size of 384 was determined using Krejcie and Morgan’s (1970) table, ensuring a 95%
confidence level. Data were collected through a longitudinal survey using self-administered, closed-ended
questionnaires to enhance accessibility and minimize bias. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive
statistics and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). Reliability was confirmed via Cronbach’s alpha, with values
above 0.7 deemed acceptable. Descriptive analysis captured demographic variables, while SEM enabled the
assessment of complex relationships between latent and observed variables, incorporating both measurement
and structural models. SEM proved effective in addressing multicollinearity, estimating correlations, and testing
the proposed theoretical framework. This comprehensive methodological approach ensures the robustness and
validity of findings on the factors influencing international tourists’ travel intentions in Malaysia.
Data Analysis
Most international tourists surveyed were from Asia (84.6%), followed by Europe (10.4%), the Americas (3.1%),
the Middle East (1.6%), and Africa (0.3%), reflecting national tourism trends reported by MOTAC. Most
respondents were middle-aged, with 35.7% aged 45–54, and a mean age indicating a predominance of the 35–
44 age group. Females constituted 67% of the sample, suggesting a gender imbalance worth exploring further.
In terms of marital status, 62.2% were married, indicating Malaysia’s appeal as a family or couple-friendly
destination. Group travel was common, with 51% traveling in pairs or trios and 44.3% in larger groups, while
solo travelers represented only 4.7%. Most tourists (74.4%) stayed for less than one week, consistent with the
national average stay of 6.5 days. Educationally, 53.4% had completed high school, and 46.3% held higher
education qualifications (diploma, degree, or postgraduate). Income-wise, 61.5% earned below $40,000
annually, indicating that Malaysia primarily attracts middle-income tourists.
Hypotheses Testing
As shown in Table 4, the finding indicate distinct effects of key variables on travel intention. Past travel
experience did not significantly influence risk perception (β = -0.054, p = 0.213) but had a positive and
significant effect on travel intention (β = 0.155, p = 0.017). Sensation-seeking personality showed no significant
impact on risk perception (β = -0.022, p = 0.356), yet negatively affected travel intention (β = -0.069, p = 0.049).
Interestingly, risk perception had a significant positive effect on travel intention (β = 0.212, p = 0.047), indicating
that higher perceived risk may increase travel motivation, challenging traditional expectations.
Table 4. Hypotheses Testing
Hypothesis Statement of Path Analysis
Estimate
P-value
Result in hypothesis
H1: Past experience has a significant effect on tourist intention
to travel
0.155
0.017
Supported
H2: Past experience has a significant effect on risk perception
-0.054
0.213
Not supported
H3: Risk perception has a significant effect on tourist intention
to travel
0.212
0.047
Supported
H4: Sensation-seeking personality has a significant effect on tourist
intention to travel
-0.069
0.049
Supported
H5: Sensation-seeking personality has a significant effect on risk
perception
-0.022
0.356
Not Supported
H6: Risk perception has significantly mediated the relationship
between past travel experience and intention to travel.
Not Supported
H7: Risk perception has significantly mediated the relationship between sensation-seeking
personality and intention to travel.
Not Supported
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The analysis demonstrates mixed effects of past travel experience, sensation-seeking personality, and risk
perception on travel intention. Past travel experience had a significant positive impact on travel intention (β =
0.155, p = 0.017) but did not significantly affect risk perception (β = -0.054, p = 0.213). Sensation-seeking
personality showed no significant effect on risk perception (β = -0.022, p = 0.356) but had a significant negative
influence on travel intention (β = -0.069, p = 0.049). Additionally, risk perception significantly and positively
influenced travel intention (β = 0.212, p = 0.047). These findings highlight the complex and varied roles these
factors play in shaping travel intention.
Mediating Effect of Past Travel Experience and Intention to Travel
Figure 2 shows that there is no mediation effect of risk perception between past travel experience and travel
intention. Although the direct effect slightly increases from 0.13 to 0.14 after introducing the mediator, mediation
typically requires a reduction in the direct effect. Furthermore, the indirect effect (0.0112) is minimal compared
to the direct effect (0.14), and only one of the two indirect paths is statistically significant. These findings confirm
that risk perception does not mediate the relationship between past travel experience and travel intention.
Figure 2. The Direct Effect of Past Experience on Intention to Travel
Referring to Table 5, the path analysis results revealed mixed outcomes. First, past travel experience had a
significant positive effect on intention to travel (β = 0.155, p = 0.017), indicating that individuals with previous
travel experience are more likely to plan future travel. However, past travel experience did not significantly
influence risk perception (β = –0.054, p = 0.213), suggesting that having traveled before does not necessarily
lower or heighten travelers’ sense of risk. Interestingly, risk perception was found to have a significant positive
effect on intention to travel (β = 0.212, p = 0.047). This finding implies that even when travelers perceive
potential risks, their willingness to travel may remain strong, possibly because they adopt coping strategies, have
confidence in safety measures, or associate risk with adventure.
Table 5. The Path Coefficient and Its Significance
Hypothesis Statement of Path Analysis
Estimate
S.E
C.R
p-value
Result on hypothesis
H1: Past travel experience has significant
effect on intention to travel
0.155
0.065
2.378
0.017
Supported
H2: Past travel experience has significant
effect on risk perception
-0.054
0.043
-1.245
0.213
Not supported
H3: Risk perception has significant effect
on intention to travel
0.212
0.107
1.986
0.047
Supported
Mediating Effect of Sensation-Seeking Personality and Intention to Travel
Figure 3 shows the direct effect of sensation-seeking personality on travel intention, with a beta coefficient of -
0.13. When risk perception is introduced as a mediator, the beta coefficient remains unchanged. This indicates
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that the mediator does not influence the relationship. Another way to assess mediation is by comparing the beta
coefficients of direct and indirect effects. The indirect effect is calculated as -0.05 × 0.16 = 0.008, which is much
smaller than the direct effect (-0.13). Since the direct effect remains stronger and unchanged, no mediation occurs
between sensation-seeking personality and travel intention.
Figure 3. The Direct Effect of Sensation-Seeking Personality on Intention to Travel -0.13
Table 6. The Path Coefficient and Its Significance
Hypothesis Statement of Path Analysis
Estimate
S.E
C.R
p-value
Result on hypothesis
H4: Sensation-seeking personality has
significant effect on intention to travel
-0.069
0.035
-1.971
0.049
Supported
H5: Sensation-seeking personality has
significant effect on risk perception
-0.022
0.023
-0.923
0.356
Not Supported
H3: Risk perception has significant effect on
intention to travel
0.212
0.107
1.986
0.047
Supported
Table 6 illustrates that sensation-seeking personality had a significant negative effect on intention to travel (β =
–0.069, p = 0.049), suggesting that individuals with stronger sensation-seeking tendencies may be less inclined
to engage in conventional travel, possibly preferring alternative or extreme activities instead. However,
sensation-seeking personality did not significantly influence risk perception (β = –0.022, p = 0.356), indicating
that this personality trait does not meaningfully shape how individuals evaluate risks associated with travel.
Additionally, risk perception was found to significantly and positively affect intention to travel (β = 0.212, p =
0.047). This result implies that even when travelers are aware of potential risks, their intention to travel remains
strong, perhaps because they develop coping mechanisms, perceive risks as manageable, or even associate risk
with adventure and excitement.
CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION
This study aims to investigate the complex relationships among past travel experience, sensation-seeking
personality, risk perception, and international tourists’ travel intention. Specifically, it examines how past
experiences and sensation-seeking traits influence risk perception (RO1), and how these two factors directly
impact travel intention (RO2). The study also explores the effect of risk perception on travel intention (RO3),
recognizing its potential to either deter or encourage international travel. Finally, it assesses the mediating role
of risk perception in the relationship between past travel experience, sensation-seeking personality, and travel
intention (RO5), to determine whether risk perception serves as a key psychological link in shaping travel
Intention to travel
Sensation-Seeking
Personality
-0.05
0.16
-0.13
Sensation-Seeking
Personality
Intention to travel (TI)
Risk Perception
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behaviour.
Past Travel Experience and Risk Perception
Contrary to earlier studies (Lepp & Gibson, 2003; Perpiña et al., 2017; Cui et al., 2016), this study found no
significant relationship between past travel experience and risk perception (p = 0.213). These findings suggest
that past travel experience might no longer play a strong role in shaping how tourists perceive risks when
traveling internationally to Malaysia. This shift likely reflects how quickly the tourism environment is changing.
With constant updates on safety measures, the widespread use of digital platforms especially social media and
continuous improvements in services, travelers today tend to rely more on real-time information rather than on
what they experienced in the past. In other words, previous travel experiences may lose relevance or become
outdated when destinations and travel conditions change significantly. This supports the idea that risk perception
is fluid and heavily influenced by current contexts and information sources, such as media and peer
recommendations.
Moreover, it’s possible that past travel experience now influences risk perception in a more indirect way. Instead
of directly shaping perceptions of risk, it might work through factors like destination familiarity or overall image.
For example, recent studies (Hu et al., 2021) have found that memorable past experiences often affect tourists’
desire to revisit through feelings of nostalgia or emotional attachment, rather than through their perception of
risk. From a theoretical standpoint, this finding calls for an update to existing models of travel risk. It suggests
that the relationship between past travel experience and risk perception may weaken when real-time digital
information and rapidly changing destination conditions come into play. Future models should, therefore,
consider how evolving information channels such as social media and live updates and the dynamic nature of
destinations can moderate the effect of past experiences on how tourists perceive risk.
Sensation-Seeking Personality and Risk Perception
This study found no significant relationship between sensation-seeking personality and risk perception (p =
0.356), contradicting earlier findings by researchers such as Morakabati and Kapuściński (2016) and Fuchs
(2011). Previous tourism research has shown mixed results regarding this relationship. For instance, Lepp and
Gibson (2008) similarly found no significant link between sensation seeking and risk perception among young
adults in the U.S., while other studies have suggested that individuals with higher sensation-seeking tendencies
tend to perceive less risk.
Sensation seeking, as defined by Marvin Zuckerman (1979), refers to “the need for varied, novel, complex, and
intense sensations and experiences, and the willingness to take physical, social, legal, and financial risks for the
sake of such experience.” However, a more recent meta-analysis by Blomstervik (2022) suggests that sensation
seeking aligns more with novelty-seeking rather than an attraction to risk itself. This helps explain the current
finding: international tourists with high sensation-seeking traits may perceive travel risks in a similar way to
others, partly due to the influence of modern media in shaping collective risk awareness (Lepp & Gibson, 2008).
Although sensation seekers are often drawn to new and stimulating environments, Malaysia may not be
perceived as a particularly risky or adventurous destination. As a result, their sensation-seeking tendencies may
not strongly influence their perceptions of travel risk. According to Zuckerman’s theory, these individuals are
motivated primarily by novelty and excitement rather than by the pursuit of danger. This interpretation aligns
with previous studies showing that sensation seekers are more likely to engage in adventure or extreme tourism
(Page et al., 2005; Cater, 2006; Giddy, 2016), reflecting a desire for diverse and stimulating experiences rather
than a lower sensitivity to risk (Lopez-Bonilla & Lopez-Bonilla, 2012).
Past Travel Experience and Intention to Travel
This study found a significant and positive relationship between past travel experience and intention to travel (β
= 0.14, p < 0.05), indicating that satisfying previous visits increase the likelihood of tourists returning to
Malaysia. This finding is consistent with prior research showing that enjoyable travel experiences foster loyalty
and revisit intentions (Hu et al., 2021; Lin, 2024). When tourists have positive experiences, they develop
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familiarity and comfort with the destination, which helps reduce uncertainty and create positive emotions such
as nostalgia and attachment; factors that strengthen their intention to return.
Tourist satisfaction plays a vital role in shaping travel intentions, though perceptions can vary depending on
individual expectations and experiences (Chiu et al., 2016). Positive experiences often lead tourists to promote
destinations through word-of-mouth or social media, whereas negative experiences such as poor infrastructure,
unprofessional service, or price discrimination can discourage repeat visits (Christian et al., 2011). Firsthand
experiences also carry more influence than secondhand information, as they build a sense of familiarity and
perceived safety (Liu, Li, & Kim, 2016). In short, the quality of past experiences strongly determines future
travel intentions, with positive encounters enhancing destination loyalty (San Martin et al., 2013; Petrick &
Backman, 2002) and negative ones, such as crime or political instability, prompting avoidance behaviour
(Korstanje, 2011).
Theoretically, this relationship aligns with the push–pull motivation framework (Crompton, 1979) and
consumer-behavior models (Fishbein & Ajzen, 2011), which explain how positive past experiences cultivate
favorable attitudes, reduce perceived risks, and encourage repeat visits. Future research could build on this by
integrating concepts like destination attachment or experience memorability (Hu et al., 2021) to capture the
emotional dimension of travel decision-making more effectively.
Interestingly, this study also found a significant positive relationship between risk perception and travel intention
(β = 0.157, p < 0.05). While many past studies suggest that higher risk perception discourages travel (Hasan et
al., 2017; Zhang & Kim, 2025), these findings suggest the opposite: in some contexts, being aware of risks can
actually motivate tourists rather than deter them. Tourists who recognize potential risks may take proactive steps
such as buying insurance, checking safety updates, or preparing health precautions which can increase their
confidence and readiness to travel.
This interpretation aligns with the Risk Perception Attitude (RPA) framework by Rimal and Real (2003), which
proposes that individuals who perceive higher risks but also possess strong self-efficacy tend to respond through
protective or adaptive behaviours rather than avoidance. In tourism, Wang et al. (2019) found that adventure
travelers often view risk as an inherent and exciting part of the experience, not as a barrier. Hence, this study
supports the idea that risk perception is not always negative; it can, under certain conditions, enhance travel
intention when tourists feel capable of managing those risks and when the destination appeals to their sense of
adventure and preparedness.
Sensation seeking Personality and Risk Perception 0.049
This study found a significant negative relationship between sensation-seeking personality and intention to travel
(β = –0.069, p < 0.05), suggesting that individuals with strong sensation-seeking traits are less likely to intend
to travel to Malaysia. This may be because high sensation seekers tend to prefer destinations that offer more
novelty, excitement, or even a sense of danger; features not typically associated with Malaysia’s relatively safe
and structured tourism environment. In other words, the destination might not be perceived as “thrilling” enough
to satisfy their desire for new and intense experiences.
Sensation seeking, as defined by Zuckerman (1979), is the need for varied, novel, complex, and intense
sensations and experiences, and the willingness to take risks for the sake of such experiences. Previous studies
have shown that people with high sensation-seeking tendencies are drawn to adventurous forms of travel, such
as extreme sports, exploration, or activities that involve uncertainty and excitement (Cater, 2006; Page, Bentley,
& Walker, 2005). Conversely, when destinations are perceived as predictable or low-risk, these individuals often
lose interest (Lepp & Gibson, 2003; Pizam et al., 2004). This helps explain why the current study found a
negative relationship, high sensation seekers might not see Malaysia as offering the level of novelty or challenge
they crave. Research by Giddy and Webb (2018) supports this view, showing that sensation seekers are
motivated more by the thrill of adventure and novelty than by traditional sightseeing or comfort-based tourism.
Likewise, Blomstervik (2022) emphasized that sensation seeking is more about pursuing new and stimulating
experiences than about taking actual risks.
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From a theoretical standpoint, this finding suggests that the influence of sensation seeking on travel intention
depends on the perceived nature of the destination. When a destination is seen as exciting and full of discovery,
sensation seekers are likely to show stronger travel intentions. However, when it is viewed as safe or familiar,
their motivation tends to decrease. For destination marketers, this insight is valuable. It indicates that to attract
high sensation-seeking travelers, Malaysia could promote more adventure-oriented tourism products such as
jungle trekking, white-water rafting, caving, or off-the-beaten-path eco-adventures that offer the excitement and
novelty this segment looks for.
Risk Perception and Intention to Travel
The study identified a significant and positive relationship between risk perception and travel intention (β =
0.157, p < 0.05), indicating that higher perceived risk can influence, rather than deter, international tourists’
decisions. This finding contrasts with earlier studies that generally associate high perceived risk with reduced
travel intention (e.g., Caber et al., 2020). The divergence highlights the role of individual socio-psychological
traits such as risk tolerance, socioeconomic status, and sensation-seeking personality in shaping how tourists
interpret and respond to risk (Tarlow, 2014). While some travellers actively avoid high-risk destinations, others
adopt coping strategies like purchasing insurance, preparing medically, or learning local languages. Tourists
commonly mitigate uncertainty by gathering travel information through media, peer recommendations, or
official government sources. As observed in the case of Saudi Arabia’s vaccination requirements for Hajj
pilgrims, self-protection measures like immunization increase traveller confidence. Although external risks such
as terrorism, crime, and pandemics are largely beyond travellers’ control, appropriate risk management
behaviours can reduce anxiety and support travel decision-making.
The Role of Risk Perception in Mediating the Relationship Between Past Travel Experience, Sensation-
Seeking Personality, and International Tourists’ Intention to Travel
The study found that risk perception did not mediate the relationship between the independent variables and
travel intention. A key reason for this is the general perception of Malaysia as a safe travel destination. Although
certain areas, such as eastern Sabah, have experienced terrorism-related incidents, these risks are not perceived
to affect the country as a whole. Furthermore, since these incidents occurred more than a year prior to the study,
their influence on tourists' emotional responses and risk awareness had likely diminished, aligning with prior
rese /arch suggesting the temporal proximity of threats affects their psychological impact. Demographic factors
also contributed to the non-significant mediation effect. The majority of respondents were aged 35 and above,
and while older travellers are typically more risk-averse, findings on age-related risk behaviour remain mixed.
This may have diluted any consistent pattern of risk perception across age groups. Additionally, the gender
imbalance in the sample 63% female may have affected outcomes, as women are generally more risk-sensitive
and emotionally responsive to potential threats. Cultural and social role expectations in Asian contexts may
further influence how different genders perceive and respond to travel risks. These demographic variations likely
contributed to the lack of a mediating effect of risk perception in the travel decision-making process.
Research Implication
The study offers important theoretical insights by emphasizing the limited long-term influence of past travel
experiences on risk perception. Although positive travel experiences generally strengthen destination recall and
revisit intentions, their impact may fade over time, especially when the gap between visits is significant. This
highlights the need for sustained engagement to maintain destination relevance. Grounded in the push and pull
theory and consumer behaviour theory, the research underscores the role of motivation, learning, and attitudes
in shaping travel decisions, while recognizing that psychological experiences, not just past behaviour, drive
future intentions. Additionally, the study confirms a significant link between sensation-seeking personality traits
and international travel intentions. Tourists with high sensation-seeking tendencies characterized by a desire for
adventure, novelty, and risk are more likely to engage in unique and high-risk tourism experiences, supporting
previous findings on allocentric travellers. Practically, the findings underline the need for more comprehensive
risk management strategies in Malaysia’s tourism industry. Despite the evident risks associated with health
crises, political instability, and crime, structured risk mitigation efforts remain limited. The study calls on tourism
stakeholders including government bodies, travel agencies, and hospitality providers to integrate risk awareness
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with personalized marketing strategies that consider cultural background and traveller personality. Creating
memorable, safe, and informative travel experiences is essential for sustaining tourist interest. The research also
provides a useful framework for academicians to explore risk perception and decision-making in tourism,
enriching scholarly discourse and guiding future tourism policy development in Malaysia.
CONCLUSION
This study provides valuable insights into how psychological traits and past experiences influence international
tourists’ travel intentions, especially in the context of Malaysia, a destination generally seen as safe and familiar.
By examining the roles of past travel experience, sensation-seeking personality, and risk perception, the findings
offer a richer understanding of how people make travel decisions in the post-pandemic world.
The results suggest that past travel experience may no longer strongly or directly shape how tourists perceive
risk, particularly in a world where new challenges such as health concerns, political instability, or environmental
threats can emerge suddenly. However, prior experience continues to play a key role in shaping revisit intentions.
Familiarity with a destination builds comfort, trust, and confidence, making tourists more likely to return. This
aligns with earlier research showing that repeat visitors often see destinations as safer and more predictable
(Chew and Jahari, 2014; Karl, 2018). Sensation-seeking personality traits also play a significant role in travel
intentions, though not necessarily through risk perception. High sensation seekers, who crave novelty, variety,
and stimulation, are drawn to destinations that offer unique, adventurous, or unconventional experiences
(Zuckerman, 1979; Giddy and Webb, 2018). In a destination perceived as safe and familiar such as Malaysia,
the connection between sensation seeking and risk perception weakens. For these travelers, the destination might
not feel risky or thrilling enough to satisfy their need for excitement, showing that the impact of sensation seeking
depends on how a place is perceived and presented. Interestingly, the study challenges the traditional idea that
risk always deters travel. For some tourists, particularly those with strong coping skills, previous travel
experience, or a high tolerance for uncertainty, risk can enhance the sense of excitement or adventure (Karl,
2018; Lepp and Gibson, 2003). A moderate level of perceived risk can make a trip feel more engaging rather
than discouraging it.
The research highlights that the role of risk perception is highly context-dependent. In low-risk or well-known
destinations such as Malaysia, risk may have little influence on travel intentions. Other factors, including
perceived novelty, destination image, or emotional attachment, might better explain why tourists choose to visit.
This suggests that understanding both the destination and the traveler’s psychology is crucial when modeling
travel behavior. From a practical perspective, these findings have important implications for tourism marketers
and policymakers. To attract high sensation-seeking tourists, destinations such as Malaysia should develop and
promote more adventurous and experiential offerings such as jungle trekking, caving, white-water rafting, and
cultural immersion tours. These experiences can help shift perceptions, showing Malaysia not only as safe but
also exciting and full of discovery.
At the same time, promoting safety alone may not appeal to all travelers. While safety remains vital for risk-
averse visitors, others seek challenge, spontaneity, and novelty. A balanced approach is essential, one that
reassures travelers while highlighting unique experiences and adventure. Effective risk communication is also
critical, particularly through digital channels. Social media, travel influencers, and online reviews can provide
real-time, credible information that shapes tourists’ perceptions more effectively than traditional brochures or
advertisements.
Finally, marketers should consider personality-based segmentation. High sensation seekers may respond best to
messages emphasizing adventure, exploration, or authentic local experiences, while low sensation seekers may
prefer campaigns focusing on comfort, safety, and cultural familiarity. By understanding these psychological
differences, destinations can design marketing strategies that connect with a wider range of tourists and create
more personalized and meaningful travel experiences.
Recommendation for Future Research
This study mainly focused on the factors and risks that affect international tourists visiting Malaysia, looking
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only at the demand side of the tourism industry. To gain a fuller picture, future research should also consider the
supply side businesses and operators that make up the tourism ecosystem. These include transportation
providers, food and beverage services, recreation and entertainment companies, accommodation providers, and
travel agencies. Each of these sectors faces different types and levels of risks, so future studies could either zoom
in on one particular sector or group similar ones together for deeper analysis. It would also be valuable to adopt
a mixed-methods approach that combines both qualitative and quantitative techniques, as this not only improves
data quality but also provides richer insights into human behaviour (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Surveys and
interviews, for instance, complement each other well in social science research. A larger sample size would
further strengthen the reliability and generalizability of results, allowing for more confident conclusions, as Lam
et al. (2004) emphasize that sample size significantly affects the power of hypothesis testing. Extending this
research to different regions would also help validate the proposed framework and highlight how risk perceptions
and behaviours vary across diverse geographical contexts.
To make future research even stronger, it should incorporate modern factors that are shaping today’s travel
landscape such as social media influence, digital-risk communication, and destination resilience since these
elements increasingly shape how tourists perceive and respond to risks (Li, Xu, & Hu, 2022). Analytical
techniques could also be improved through the use of advanced statistical tools like Structural Equation
Modelling (SEM), confirmatory factor analysis, bootstrapping, and reliability testing, which together can
produce more solid and theory-driven findings (Hair, Hult, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2021). Furthermore, various
groups of travellers by gender, nationality, or travel frequency through exploring differences among multi-group
analysis could reveal why people perceive and react to risks differently (Cheng, N., & Hu, W. (2024).
Strengthening the theoretical foundation using behavioural models such as the Protection Motivation Theory
(PMT) and the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) would also help explain how individuals assess risks and
make protective travel decisions (Rogers & Prentice-Dunn, 1997; Wang, Liu-Lastres, Ritchie, & Mills, 2019).
Adding qualitative or mixed methods, such as interviews or open-ended surveys, would enrich the findings by
providing a more personal and emotional perspective on what motivates tourists whether excitement, trust, or
cultural influence (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Comparing results across different tourism types, such as
adventure, cultural, or eco-tourism, could also help position Malaysia’s strengths and uniqueness in the global
tourism landscape (Lepp & Gibson, 2008). Finally, improving generalisability requires larger and more diverse
samples, culturally validated measurement scales, and sensitivity analyses to ensure consistent and reliable
outcomes. Future studies should also present their findings in a way that clearly links theoretical insights with
practical implications, making the research not only academically meaningful but also valuable for tourism
professionals and policymakers.
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