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The Hybrid Imperative and Its Discontents: Multinational
Corporations, Localisation Strategies, and Development in Africa
Bakary S. Sonko
HSE University, Tver State University, University of the People
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.914MG00226
Received: 07 November 2025; Accepted: 14 November 2025; Published: 26 November 2025
ABSTRACT
The strategic imperative for MNCs to balance global integration with local adaptation is a basic assumption of
international business. Yet, the application and outcomes of this hybrid model are still critically underexplored
in the case of Africa. This paper explores the localisation strategy of MNCs operating within the consumer
goods and fast-food industries across South Africa, Kenya, and Tanzania. Utilising a qualitative multi-case
study approach, it juxtaposes the operational, marketing, and corporate social responsibility strategies of firms
such as KFC and Coca-Cola. Results identify an emergent taxonomy: while technological and marketing
adaptations abound, often successful, as in the case of KFC's use of Zenput and micro-influencer campaigns.
The implementation of labour standards often fails; similarly, CSR initiatives vary from transformative social
embeddedness, such as KFC's Add Hope, to more criticised "soft marketing" efforts, as evident in Coca-Cola's
water projects. The paper concludes that the effectiveness of the hybrid model is not inherent but rather a
function of its implementation. It calls for a co-development paradigm in which MNC performance would be
measured by its ability to build equitable partnerships, ensure radical transparency, and align its core
operations with SDGs so as to address deep-seated critiques of neo-colonialism and corruption.
Keywords: Multinational Corporations, Global Integration, Local Adaptation, Africa, Corporate Social
Responsibility, Kenya, South Africa, KFC, Neo-colonialism, Sustainable Development.
INTRODUCTION
The role of MNCs in the African economic landscape is a prime paradox seen in modern globalisation studies:
on one hand, they are generally regarded as crucial drivers of economic development, as they bring immense
foreign direct investment, technology transfer, and employment to developing markets Achola 2016; Games
2015. The expansion of global brands into African markets has been linked to modern developments in retail
infrastructure, supply chains, and spillover knowledge that could confer benefits on local economies. On the
other hand, a strong scholarly tradition frames the very same corporations as modern vectors of neo-
colonialism, perpetuating economic dependency and facilitating resource exploitation through sophisticated
mechanisms of control Udofia 1984; Nwosu 2023; Yangailo 2024. This perspective underlines that MNCs may
often undermine local industries, shape governmental policies for their benefit, and repatriate profits to
ultimately curtail meaningful domestic accumulation of capital.
This tension is particularly acute in the FMCG and quick-service restaurant sectors, which involve globally
recognised brands embedding themselves within diverse and complex local contexts characterised by distinct
consumer preferences, regulatory environments, and socio-economic challenges. The strategic imperative to
navigate this complex terrain has given rise to what international business literature identifies as the central
challenge of balancing global integration with local responsiveness. The dominant strategic framework for
addressing this challenge involves navigating the balance between the GI standardisation of operations, brand
identity, and quality control to achieve economies of scale and maintain consistent brand positioning
worldwide, and LA the customisation of products, marketing strategies, and business practices to meet specific
host-country demands and cultural contexts.
While this "hybrid model" is well-theorised in international business literature, its practical implementation
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and socio-economic consequences in African markets require deeper, more critical examination. The existing
scholarship has often fallen into a polarised dichotomy, with one strand (Muli, 2019; Achola, 2016) focusing
on strategic business advantages of localisation strategies and the other (Udofia, 1984; Nwosu, 2023) on
macrolevel critiques of corporate imperialism and exploitation. This resulted in a major gap in understanding
nuanced, on-the-ground manifestations and variegated outcomes of the GI-LA balance within various
operational domains-from supply chain management and human resources to marketing and corporate social
responsibility.
This paper addresses the critical gap with the following research question: To what extent does the hybrid
model of global integration and local adaptation enable MNCs to achieve sustainable and equitable success in
African markets, and under what conditions does this model either transcend or reinforce existing power
asymmetries?
We argue, however, that a hybrid strategy, though a necessary condition for both market entry and operational
viability, is not sufficient to attain legitimacy and ensure sustainable success in the African context. The
model's effectiveness would depend on how far it goes beyond superficial or instrumental adaptation to reach
deep and authentic embeddedness in local economic and social fabrics. In a comparative multi-case study of
MNC operations in South Africa and Kenya, we reveal that what constitutes the most significant differentiator
between successful and failed localisation strategies is whether they are used for simple market penetration or
as an instrument for genuine, co-creative development that adds shared value to both corporations and host
communities.
This paper is organised to advance this argument step by step. Section 2 lays out the theoretical framework,
combining the GI-LA model from the international business literature with critical political economy
perspectives on MNC operations in developing contexts. Section 3 outlines the qualitative, multi-case study
methodology used in this study. Section 4 provides the empirical results, considering localisation strategies in
four key domains: market entry structures, operational processes, marketing communications, and corporate
social responsibility initiatives. Section 5 discusses these findings, highlighting the critical disparity between
policy and practice in localisation efforts. Finally, Section 6 concludes by calling for a conceptual shift from a
strategic hybrid model to what we term a "co-development paradigm" for MNC operations in Africa, a
framework that places equitable partnerships, radical transparency, and adherence to the sustainable
development goals as prerequisites for long-term corporate legitimacy and success.
2. Literature Review and Theoretical Framework
The study is done at the juncture between international business strategy and critical development studies, two
areas that often have conflicting perspectives on the nature and role, and implications, of Multinational
Corporations. In order to capture the complexity of MNC operations in Africa, two distinct yet complementary
pillars form the theoretical framework of this paper: first, the strategic imperative of the GI-LA framework, and
second, the critical political economy lens that focuses on power relations and neo-colonial continuities.
2.1 The Strategic Imperative: Global Integration vs. Local Adaptation
The GI-LA framework is one of the cornerstones of international management theory and provides a pragmatic
lens to understand how MNCs structure their global operations, according to Jain (2024) and Miao (2023). The
pursuit of GI is driven by the rationale of standardisation and efficiency. MNCs utilise GI to maintain
consistent brand identity, achieve uniform product quality, ensure economies of scale in production and supply
chain management, and spread best practice and innovation across their global network. This integrative force
often becomes centralised at corporate headquarters and is crucial to making a cohesive, recognisable global
brand.
On the contrary, LA is a responsive strategy. The inevitable heterogeneity of global markets necessitates
choices by MNCs through the adaptation of their offerings to disparate consumer tastes and preferences,
distinctive regulatory and political environments, unique competitive configurations, and deeply entrenched
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cultural norms. This could involve changes in product formulation, localised marketing campaigns, adaptation
of pricing policies, and modification of human resources practices. Choices for firms are seldom binary; a
hybrid approach is often the rule, although the particular point of balance adopted is always shifting and tends
to vary from industry to industry, corporate function to corporate function, and host country context to host
country context.
For example, Hansen (2020) views "local content" as an increasingly formalised, often legislated expression of
LA applied to the extractive sector, where MNCs would be obliged to incorporate local labour and suppliers
and local knowledge into their value chains; this is a strategic response both to governmental pressure and
pragmatic requirements for social legitimacy. In a similar vein, the widespread use of franchising in the fast-
food sector can be seen in KFC's entry into Kenya, reported by Achola (2016); this is a structural hybrid model
that inherently balances GI-global brand and operational standards with LA local franchisee ownership and
market knowledge.
2.2. The Critical Lens: Neo-Colonialism, Corruption, and the New CSR
In tandem with this managerialist argument is a strong, critical body of literature that contests the supposedly
benign view of MNCs as simple economic agents. From a perspective informed by dependency and
worldsystems theories, the massive economic power of MNCs can replicate, under new conditions, colonial-
era power dynamics, a phenomenon variously termed neo-colonialism (Udofia, 1984; Nwosu, 2023). In this
light, MNCs do not act as disinterested agents of development; often, they play into structuring the global
economy in such ways as to reinforce the economic dependency of African nations through facilitating the
outflow of resources and profits, hampering local industrial development (Mthombeni, 2006).
This critical lens underlines a number of key pathologies. It investigates how MNCs can influence government
policies unduly, contribute to or create propitious conditions for corrupt practices to occur (Zekeri, 2016), and
seek to repatriate profit without creating meaningful local value and reinvesting it therein. From within this
frame, Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is invariably regarded with heavy scepticism. Rather than an
authentic concern for social well-being, CSR is often presented as a variant of "soft marketing" or a
legitimising device in strategic discourse intended to obfuscate exploitative practice at its core and secure a
"social license to operate" without changing core business behaviour substantively (Buckley, 2009). This
critique asserts that CSR reports more often than not remain "narrative as opposed to scientific, and
exaggerative in their claims" (Buckley, 2009, p. 3), serving a public relations function rather than a
transformative one.
Valid critiques have coalesced into calls for a new, even transformative, approach to corporate citizenship.
Indeed, other scholars such as Amodu (2020) and Mangaliso (1992) emphasise that for MNCs to be seen as
legitimate and sustainable actors in Africa, their CSR should be transformed from peripheral philanthropy to
being aligned directly with the most pressing developmental needs of the continent, as represented by the
SDGs. This "new CSR" is one in which social and environmental considerations are not ancillary add-ons but
are integral to core business strategy, creating shared value between the corporation and the host society.
2.3. Synthesising the Frameworks: An Integrated Analytical Approach
This paper synthesises these two dominant perspectives into a more holistic and critical analytical framework.
We use the GI-LA as an appropriate and robust analytical tool for the dissection and categorisation of the
strategic choices and operational mechanisms employed by MNCs in Africa. From there, one can
systematically examine how these corporations attempt to balance competing pressures. Simultaneously, we
utilise the critical political economy framework to assess the quality, intent, and ultimate impact of those
strategies. A dual framework enables us to ask key questions that neither perspective could adequately address
in isolation: whether a specific local adaptation constitutes a genuine response to local needs or a cynical
calculation for market access; whether a globally integrated policy empowers or disempowers local
stakeholders; whether a CSR initiative represents "co-development" or "soft marketing". This integrated
approach allows for a differentiated analysis that takes into account the strategic imperatives of MNCs while
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not overlooking the significant power disparities and related ethical responsibilities within their operations. It
takes the debate beyond the question of whether MNCs must adapt to one that more usefully questions how
they adapt, to what ends, and to whose benefit. The synthesis below informs the conceptual basis upon which
the succeeding multi-case study analysis is founded. It allows for a critical review of whether the hybrid model
acts as a vehicle for equitable development or simply as a sophisticated reiteration of embedded power
asymmetries.
METHODOLOGY
The qualitative multi-case study design (Yin 2018) is employed in this research to investigate the complex
context-dependent MNC localisation strategy phenomenon in Africa. This approach is most suitable for
addressing "how" and "why" questions of contemporary events over which the researcher has little control and
is best suited to offer the most extensive, nuanced explanation of the implementation of the GI-LA hybrid
model and its consequences in nature. By focusing on multiple cases, the study adopts a replication logic that is
then supported by analytical generalisation, which enhances robustness and validity by showing how the
hybrid model manifests across contexts and operational domains.
3.1. Case Selection and Rationale
The study has a focus on the FMCG and fast-food industries in South Africa, Kenya, and Tanzania. These
countries have been chosen because they represent major economic hubs that are diverse in their market
maturity, regulatory environments, and socio-political contexts in Eastern and Southern Africa, thus allowing
for a comparative analysis of how contextual factors influence localisation strategies.
A purposive sampling strategy has been used in selecting information-rich cases to illustrate varied facets of
the GI-LA dynamic. The main cases include:
KFC (Yum! Brands): This case has been analysed across multiple dimensions and countries to provide a
holistic view of the strategic approach of a single MNC.
Market Entry & Structure: An essential example of the structural hybrid model is its use of franchising in
Kenya, Achola, 2016.
Operational Adaptation: The implementation of Zenput's platform in South Africa as narrated by
Crunchtime, 2024, represents a very clear example of using technology to enforce global standards and solve a
local operational inefficiency.
Corporate Social Responsibility: The Add Hope program in South Africa represents a possible benchmark for
deep, socially-embedded local adaptation (KFC Add Hope Report, 2024). The Kenyan cut-flower industry
provides a critical case of the failure of policy implementation. This is poignantly highlighted by the study of
the Kenya Flower Council KFC Silver Standard by Mwaniki (2008). It underlines the difference between
formal adoption of a local labour code and the actual, on-the-ground implementation and brings out the
limitation of superficial adaptation.
Coca-Cola South Africa: This provides an important contrasting perspective on CSR as being contested. The
critical review by Buckley (2009) of its water projects serves as a good example of how CSR might be framed
as "soft marketing" and scrutinises its likely alignment with controversial policy directions like privatisation,
presenting a counter-narrative to more celebratory accounts of corporate citizenship.
3.2. Data Sources and Collection
Considering the cross-national nature of this investigation, coupled with its corporate strategy focus, the
research in this study relies on an in-depth secondary data analysis supported by a robust and diverse set of
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data sources. This enables the triangulation of evidence, enhancing the construct validity and reliability of the
findings since insights are checked across several independent sources. The data corpus will consist of:
Academic Literature: Refereed journal articles, academic books, and postgraduate dissertations (e.g.,
Mwaniki, 2008; Achola, 2016; Buckley, 2009) that present rigorous empirically-based analysis.
Industry and Corporate Publications: Published case studies from consulting firms, corporate sustainability
reports, annual reports, and official corporate websites provide an indication of the strategic intent and
selfreported outcomes of MNCs. (e.g., Crunchtime, 2024; Wowzi, n.d.)
Independent Reports and Media: Reports from NGOs, other international bodies, and investigative media
articles provide critical external perspectives that can help mitigate corporate reporting bias.
3.3. Data Analysis
Thematic analysis was used to analyse the collected data, following a systematic process of coding and theme
development. Both deductive and inductive approaches were followed in the analysis. A first set of codes was
developed deductively directly from the integrated theoretical framework, including:
GI stands for Global Integration; examples of codes include 'GI-Brand Standardisation', 'GI-Operational
Efficiency', and 'GI-Centralised Control'.
Local adaptation (LA): Codes include 'LA - Product Modification', 'LA - Marketing Localisation', 'LA -
Community Engagement', 'LA - Regulatory Compliance'.
Critical Evaluation: Codes include 'CSR - Soft Marketing', 'CSR - SDG Alignment', 'Power Asymmetry', and
'Implementation Gap'.
These codes were systematically applied to the case data by using techniques of qualitative data analysis. The
process entailed iterative cycles of reading, coding, and reflection in order to identify recurring patterns, salient
contradictions, and emergent themes related to the drivers, manifestations, and consequences of localisation
strategies. For example, data from the KFC Zenput case was coded for both 'GI - Operational Efficiency' and
'LA - Technological Solution', whereas data from the cut-flower case was coded for 'Implementation Gap' and
'LA - Labour Welfare (Failed)'. This rigorous process allowed for the identification of cross-case themes, such
as the critical role of enforcement mechanisms in successful adaptation and the spectrum of CSR authenticity,
which structure the findings and discussion that follow.
4. Empirical Results
The same GI-LA hybrid model applied across African markets has yielded a wide range of results, from
spectacular success to total failure. This points to the fact that the effectiveness of the model is far from given
and instead depends on the strategic domain in question, the authenticity of implementation, and
appropriateness to local developmental contexts. The findings are organised across four critical operational
domains, indicating the multifaceted nature of localisation.
4.1. Market Entry and Structure (Franchising Model as a Structural Hybrid)
KFC's market entry into Kenya is a good example of a structurally embedded hybrid approach. According to
Achola (2016), franchising is an institutional mechanism that codifies the balance between GI and LA. The
global franchisor still has tight control over the core elements of Global Integration, such as brand standards,
secret recipes, operating procedures, and quality assurance measures. At the same time, this model strategically
exploits the advantages of Local Adaptation by leveraging the franchisee's domestic capital, intimate
knowledge of the Kenyan consumer environment, established supply chain linkages, and familiarity with the
complex local regulatory and bureaucratic arrangements.
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While the model facilitates rapid market penetration, it also exposes the inherent tensions of the hybrid
strategy: Achola's 2016 research on the challenges faced by franchisees, including heavy taxation and
burdensome formalisation procedures, directly impacts the profitability and scalability of the model. This
shows that the success of a globally designed structural hybrid is directly mediated by local institutional and
regulatory realities, necessitating a permanent negotiation of the global strategy with the local context of
operation.
4.2. Operational Adaptation (Technology as a Hybrid Enabler)
A paradigmatic example of successful operational localisation is the adoption of the Zenput platform by KFC
South Africa. Confronted with a locally specific operational inefficiency, an antiquated, paper-based audit
system that was slow, prone to data loss, and offered delayed insights, the franchisee implemented a
technological solution. This intervention represents a sophisticated form of glocalisation in that it served the
objective of Global Integration, enforcing uniform standards in regard to food safety, cleanliness, and product
appearance, but did so through a Local Adaptation to address a critical local operational weakness.
The results were transformative: the platform provided real-time data and automated corrective actions,
yielding a 6.6% improvement in product appearance tests and freeing up over six hours of administrative work
by area managers per week (Crunchtime, 2024). This case underlines the fact that effective LA is not limited to
changing products for local tastes but can be extended to the use or development of tools that improve the very
conduct of GI so that a virtuous cycle ensues in which local efficiency gains feed back into global brand
standards.
4.3. The Implementation Gap (The Chasm Between Policy and Practice in Labour Standards)
In contrast, the Kenyan cut-flower industry, critically reviewed by Mwaniki (2008), exposes a total failure of
policy localisation. The KFC code was devised as an explicit Local Adaptation to national and international
pressure, setting a "Silver Standard" for worker welfare, safety, and fair labour practices consistent with
conventions of the ILO. Mwaniki's empirical investigation into Thika District farms revealed an extreme
implementation deficit. Evidence from the study showed that most workers were not provided with protective
clothing, unfair dismissal was rife, and employees were not guaranteed safe and reliable transportation.
This case illustrates a critical theoretical point, namely that the presence of a localised policy or code is
necessary but insufficient for meaningful adaptation: in the absence of robust, transparent monitoring systems,
accountability mechanisms, and corporate will to enforcement, LA is little more than a hollow, performative
exercise. The gulf here between de jure policy and de facto practice serves to underscore the ways in which
power asymmetries can be perpetuated beneath a veneer of corporate social responsibility and tends to affirm
the perspectives of critics who question the sincerity of such self-regulatory schemes.
4.4 Corporate Social Responsibility (The Litmus Test of Corporate Intent)
It is within the domain of CSR that the tension between strategic and critical perspectives reveals itself most
vividly, ranging from cynical instrumentalism to transformational embeddedness. The Critique: CSR as 'Soft
Marketing' and Privatisation Catalyst. Indeed, an exploration of the critical view can be well-constructed with
Buckley's in-depth analysis of water projects undertaken by Coca-Cola South Africa (CCSA) in 2009. The
study characterises CCSA's CSR initiatives as "little more than soft marketing," aimed at protecting the
corporate image. It argues that projects like the Munsieville leak repair, touted as benevolent community
support, ultimately facilitated the municipality's broader agenda of water commercialisation, including the
installation of pre-paid meters, a policy widely criticised for disproportionately burdening the poor. This aligns
with the neocolonial critique, suggesting that corporate intervention can serve to advance market-centric
political agendas under the guise of social responsibility, thereby reinforcing, rather than alleviating, existing
socio-economic inequalities. The Transformative Potential: CSR as Social Embeddedness. On the other hand,
KFC's Add Hope initiative in South Africa presents a model of CSR as deep social embeddedness. The
programme, which has raised over R1 billion and provided more than 325 million meals since its inception, is
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structurally hybrid (KFC Add Hope Report, 2024). It is funded through a combination of Global Integration, a
fixed percentage of revenue derived from KFC and its franchisees, and Local Adaptation, that is, micro-
donations from South African customers and partnerships with over 120 local NPOs. By directly addressing
the acute local challenge of child hunger (SDG 2), it has become a core part of the brand's local identity. An
independent impact assessment by Toefy (2024) documented outcomes, including improved nutritional well-
being, improved school attendance, and child potential being unlocked. This points toward a transformative
CSR model that is scalable, sustainable, and moves beyond peripheral philanthropy to become an integrated,
co-creative partnership with the local society, directly answering calls for a "new CSR" that is aligned with
developmental imperatives (Amodu, 2020).
DISCUSSION
The empirical results presented here show that the GI-LA hybrid is not a monolithic, uniformly applied
strategy but rather a fluid, often contradictory, highly context-dependent practice. Its adoption does not
predetermine its success in sustainably creating value for both the corporation and the host society. Efficacy is
critically dependent, instead, on two interrelated factors: first, the specific functional area in which it is applied,
and more fundamentally, the authenticity of the MNC's commitment to meaningful embeddedness. This
section synthesises the cross-case findings to detail the core conditions under which the hybrid model either
realises its potential or reveals its limitations.
5.1. The Determinants of Effective Localisation: Beyond Policy to Enabling Systems
The huge contrast between the failure of the Kenya Flower Council code and the success of the KFC Zenput
platform highlights a key determinant of successful localisation: the presence or absence of enabling systems
to implement it. Both initiatives were designed as localised mechanisms to enforce standards, one for social
welfare and the other for operational quality. Their outcomes were very different because of the infrastructural
underpinning for enforcement.
Where the Zenput platform succeeded was in that it was an integrated system which combined strategic
decentralisation with performance transparency. It empowered local and area managers with real-time data,
clear accountability, and changed a global standard from a static directive into a dynamic, manageable process.
The technology itself served as a neutral arbiter and tool for empowerment, helping local actors solve problems
proactively.
In contrast, the KFC code in the cut-flower industry was a paper policy that remained devoid of analogous
enabling systems, meaningful monitoring, credible grievance mechanisms, or clear sanctions for
noncompliance. A governance vacuum emerged in which corporate commitment was neither verifiable nor
enforceable at the operational level. The critical implication of this disjunction is a key theoretical and practical
message: Local Adaptation requires more than the crafting of context-sensitive policies; it requires the parallel
investment in the technological, organisational, and governance structures that can make those policies
actionable and enforceable. Without such systems, LA can too easily be hollowed out by cost-cutting pressures
and managerial indifference, reinforcing the very gap it is intended to bridge.
5.2. CSR as a Litmus Test for Corporate Intent and a Strategic Differentiator
Juxtaposing Coca-Cola's water projects with KFC's Add Hope initiative positions Corporate Social
Responsibility as a particularly powerful litmus test in discerning corporate intent. This domain most acutely
exposes the tension between the strategic and critical perspectives on MNCs.
Cases like Coca-Cola's Munsieville project really give strong validation to the critical view of CSR as a
legitimising tool or "soft marketing" (Buckley, 2009; Zekeri, 2016). When CSR initiatives are poorly
integrated, unilaterally designed, or, as critically argued, align with controversial state policies like
privatisation, they function as a superficial veneer. It's such projects that enforce the neo-colonial critique by
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showing how corporate power can be used to mould socio-political landscapes in one way or another to serve
the interests of market-centric agendas, often at the cost of communities that are already vulnerable.
However, the case of KFC's Add Hope illustrates how CSR can rise above this critique to become a wellspring
of transformational value. The reason the program works is because it is, at its core, co-creative; it was both
designed and implemented with the active engagement of a network comprising over 120 local NPOs, scalable
and sustainable, both because of corporate revenue and customer micro-donations directly speaks to a key
developmental challenge, SDG 2 Zero Hunger (Amodu, 2020). Beyond philanthropy, it is an approach that
secures what might best be described as social embeddedness, where the corporation's identity becomes
inextricably linked to its positive social impact. This is much more than an academic distinction; it carries with
it profound strategic implications. Superficial CSR exposes MNCs to reputational risk and accusations of
neocolonialism, undermining their long-term social license to operate. Authentic, embedded CSR nurtures a
deep reservoir of public goodwill and trust. Social capital buffers the firm through crises, tightens brand
loyalty, and encourages a friendlier, more stable operating environment. In sum, the decision between
superficial and embedded CSR would cease to be merely an ethical choice but become a strategic compulsion
toward long-term viability in increasingly conscious African markets. In other words, the hybrid model pays
off only when LA is operationalised through robust enabling systems, and when CSR is pursued as an
authentic strategy of codevelopment. What really makes the difference between MNCs that are perceived as
extractive and those that are welcomed as partners is the demonstrable authenticity of their commitment to
creating shared value, moving from a logic of exploitation to one of mutual reinforcement.
CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of the GI-LA hybrid model for MNCs operating
in Africa. Our multi-case analysis across fast food, horticulture, and beverages in Kenya and South Africa
confirms that the model is a strategic imperative if the business is to gain entry to and remain viable within
markets. However, the outcomes are highly uneven, ranging from exploitative to transformative
corporatecommunity relations. What clearly emerges as the central conclusion is that success is not guaranteed
by the adoption of the model but is critically determined by the depth, authenticity, and ethical integrity of its
implementation. The hybrid model is a vessel; the value of the contents depends on the corporate philosophy
that fills it.
6.1. Theoretical and Practical Implications
The findings of this research carry significant implications for both academic theory and corporate practice.
This paper makes a primary theoretical contribution by forcefully integrating the critical perspectives of
political economy into the mainstream, often managerially-focused, GI-LA discourse. It demonstrates that
analysing localisation as a purely technical or strategic challenge, focusing only on what is adapted and how, is
analytically inadequate. Our synthesis reveals that localisation must simultaneously be understood as an ethical
and political endeavour. The cases of the Kenya Flower Council code and Coca-Cola's water projects show that
without this critical lens, research can overlook how power asymmetries, neo-colonial legacies, and the
potential for "soft marketing" can subvert the developmental potential of adaptation. This enriches the GI-LA
model by insisting that the purpose and power dynamics of localisation are as important as its operational
mechanics.
For business leaders and strategists, the implications are clear and actionable:
Move beyond superficial adaptation to systemic empowerment: Localisation needs to be embedded in core
operations and empowered with the right tools and authority. In the Zenput case, as elsewhere, it is this
investment in technologies and governance structures that can enable transparent monitoring-decentralised
execution that turns policy into practice. By contrast, in the cut-flower industry, policy without an enforcement
mechanism is little more than a press statement.
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Elevate CSR from philanthropy to co-development: Social initiatives must be co-designed with local
partners, strategically aligned with the SDGs, and integrated directly into the business model. The Add Hope
program provides a model for that, which shows that when CSR stops being a peripheral charity but instead is
made part of the core and is revenue-funded, it acquires unparalleled social capital and a license to operate.
Legitimacy through Radical Transparency: MNCs will have to practice radical transparency in financial
transactions, supply chains, and social impact reporting to actively confront allegations of corruption and
exploitation. Paying taxes, sourcing products, and reporting verified outcomes of social interventions are no
longer a choice but a precondition for trust in an increasingly cynical and networked world.
6.2. Towards a Co-Development Paradigm
This, in turn, points to the conceptual evolution that is required in framing the role of MNCs in Africa. We
suggest a movement away from the strategic hybrid model and toward a co-development paradigm, one that is
much more than a semantic shift but represents instead a vital reorientation of corporate purpose and practice.
The co-development paradigm would be characterised by three core principles: Equitable Partnership in Value
Creation: This goes beyond transactional relationships or local content quotas. It involves sharing value
creation more equitably by incorporating local stakeholders into high-value activities like research and
development, product design for regional markets, and corporate governance-such that local knowledge and
interests shape the corporate trajectory from within. SDG-Aligned Core Operations: Rather than the SDGs
being a separate checklist for CSR, in a codevelopment paradigm, positive social and environmental impact
becomes a central strategic pillar and an important key performance indicator for core business. This would
mean business models are inherently designed to address, not inadvertently exacerbate, challenges like
inequality, climate change, and poverty.
The aim is to turn an institution that is perceived to be of the community, not just in it. This would mean the
success of the corporation is inextricably linked with the resilience and well-being of the community. It
contributes to the social fabric, not as a benefactor, but as a mutually invested stakeholder; thus, it changes the
narrative from extraction to mutual growth. In conclusion, while the GI-LA hybrid model provides the
essential strategic framework for MNCs to operate in Africa, it is the commitment to this more profound,
equitable, and transparent co-development paradigm that will determine their ultimate legacy. The choice is
stark: will they be remembered as catalysts for sustainable progress who partnered in Africa’s ascent, or will
they be consigned to history as the neo-colonial entities of their critics' portrayal, adept at adaptation in form
but not in spirit? The answer lies not in their strategies, but in their integrity.
7. Limitations and Avenues for Future Research
While this study offers a new theoretical synthesis and rigorous qualitative analysis of the GI-LA hybrid model
in Africa, there are important limitations to this study, which naturally point toward fruitful paths for further
scholarly inquiry. A qualitative, multi-case study design was chosen due to its depth and the nuanced
unravelling of causal mechanisms that it afforded, but by design, it inherently limits generalizability across all
MNCs and sectors in Africa. Future research could build on this foundation in several important ways:
A logical subsequent step might be to create a quantitatively testable framework based on the co-development
paradigm proposed herein. Researchers could operationalise its principles, such as equitable partnership, for
example, measured by local representation in senior management and R&D; SDG-alignment, for instance, by
the percentage of core operations linked to specific SDG targets; and authentic embeddedness, such as
longitudinal trust metrics among local communities, into a set of quantifiable indicators. This would enable
large-N statistical analysis to correlate these practices with long-term corporate performance and social impact
metrics. Future studies might focus on more systematic primary data collection. This could involve
standardised interviews with a wider range of stakeholders mentioned earlier, MNC managers, local suppliers,
representatives of civil society, and government officials across cases, and the collection of discrete,
comparable data points such as local employment statistics, local sourcing ratios, and detailed CSR
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XIV October 2025 | Special Issue on Management
Page 2977
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expenditure breakdowns. Table 1 below provides a proposed framework for such a comparative analysis that
would allow for a more structured identification of patterns across countries and sectors.
Table 1 Proposed Framework for Comparative Analysis of MNC Localisation Strategies
Strategic
Dimension
KFC (Kenya)
KFC (South Africa)
Cut-Flower
Industry (Kenya)
GI–LA Balance
Structural
Franchising
Operational
Technology
Integration
Policy Labour
Code
Implementation
Mechanism
Franchise
Agreement
Zenput Quality-
Control Platform
KFC Silver
Standard
Outcome
Market
Penetration
Product Quality and
Consistency
Widespread Labour
Non-Compliance
Key
Success/Failure
Factor
Local Partner
Knowledge
Technology-Enabled
Accountability
Weak Regulatory
Enforcement
Proposed Metric for
Future Research
Percentage of
Local
Management
Audit Compliance Rate
Worker Grievance
Reports
Note. GI–LA = Global Integration–Local Adaptation.
Source: Author
Third, while this study has consciously incorporated critical political economy perspectives, further work
might enhance the epistemic representation by more centrally drawing on or engaging with the rich and
growing body of scholarship from African academic institutions and thinkers on development, corporate
governance, and postcolonial business practices. This would further embed the analysis in local intellectual
traditions and perspectives.
Finally, there is a need for focused exploration of the policy implications of the co-development paradigm. For
example, research might delve into the exact regulatory instruments, incentive structures, and partnership
models that African governments and regional bodies like the AfCFTA could use to incentivize MNCs to move
away from a hybrid model toward a co-development approach. This would directly translate the conceptual
contribution in this paper into actionable guidance for policymakers desirous of maximising the developmental
benefits of foreign direct investment.
By addressing these areas, scholars can continue building a more empirically robust, methodologically diverse,
and policy-relevant understanding of how multinational corporations can operate in Africa, not just as efficient
entities but as equitable and embedded partners in sustainable development.
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
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Page 2978
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