INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XIV November 2025| Special Issue on Management  
The Influence of Virtual and Augmented Reality on the Spatial  
Performance and Academic Achievement of Learners: A Review  
Mohammed Thamir Atta *1, Awanis Romli 2, Mazlina Abdul Majid 3  
1,2Faculty of Computing, Universiti Malaysia Pahang Al-Sultan Abdullah, Malaysia  
3 Center of Instructional Resources & e-Learning, Universiti Malaysia Pahang Al-Sultan Abdullah,  
Malaysia  
*Corresponding Author  
DOI: https://doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.914MG00248  
Received: 05 December 2025; Accepted: 12 December 2025; Published: 29 December 2025  
ABSTRACT  
The vast development in Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) showed a magnificent impact of  
these technologies on the spatial performance of learners as well as their academic achievement. While the  
literature reported lots of empirical evidence on the substantial impact of AR and VR in the educational  
context, this paper addressed that the past academic works did not report which technology showed the higher  
degree of improvement on the spatial performance of learners and academic achievement. Hence, this study  
analyzes this relationship and present a new perspective on the influence of these technologies on developing  
the learning process in various fields of education. The outcome shows that despite VR is an efficient  
technology and provide good tools for spatial memory rehabilitation programs, e.g., patients and students, but  
it does not give the same improvement on spatial performance of learners as AR do. Therefore, spatial  
performance of learners can be described as VR less effective than AR. Given AR established more advantages  
compared to VR, this study claims that AR/VR-based experimental model may be able to reduce this gap and  
give developers of virtual classrooms a better perspective on the realism of VR and AR in education.  
Keywords: Virtual Reality, Augmented Reality, Spatial Performance, Academic Achievement  
INTRODUCTION  
Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR) made learning immersive and engaging. Both technologies  
allow learners to explore virtual environments or overlay digital information on the real world, improving  
spatial cognition and making learning more engaging. AR allows students engage with virtual objects in real  
life, boosting difficult topic comprehension [1]. VR lets students actively participate in realistic scenarios to  
rehearse and apply their knowledge safely [2]. AR and VR have made education more accessible, interactive,  
and immersive, providing a unique and engaging experience for varied learners [3]. AR and VR boost presence  
and engagement, improving information retention and comprehension [4]. Interactive technologies encourage  
critical thinking and creativity via active problem-solving. It's important to understand how this technology  
affects kids' spatial and navigation abilities as it becomes more integrated into our everyday lives and  
classrooms. Studying AR and VR will show how students use the technology and how they may enhance their  
spatial skills. Understanding architecture, engineering, design, and medicine requires spatial performance [5].  
Studying spatial performance can reveal how AR and VR can enhance curriculum and learnability. This study  
should disclose factors that impact spatial perception and cognitive constraints in spatial cognitive  
representation courses. Studying AR and VR's influence on academic achievement can assist build virtual  
classrooms and improve simulation-based learning [6]. Virtual classes assist architects and engineers learn  
spatial skills and problem-solving [7]. This may improve design efficiency and creativity. It's unknown how  
AR and VR influence students' spatial skills and academic achievement [3]. Despite AR and VR have been  
reported to helps the minds of learners to easy remember locations in space, there is limited empirical evidence  
on how these technologies specifically impact students' spatial skills and academic achievement. The lack of  
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XIV November 2025| Special Issue on Management  
concrete data on their effectiveness raises concerns about the potential mismatch between the perceived  
benefits of AR and VR and their actual influence on learning outcomes. However, the issues for effective  
virtual learning needs robust and critical review of which technology AR or VR im-prove spatial performance  
and academic achievement.  
The Purpose of the Review  
Today, modern educational institutions use virtual classrooms increasingly. Hence, distinction between AR  
and VR is important, as well as their impact on student aca-demic achievement and their spatial performance is  
critical which help to determine the cost and effectiveness of learning. Accordingly, the purpose of this review  
paper is to review how previous findings report on these relationships, and identify the difference of effect  
between AR, VR in spatial performance, and academic achievement.  
LITERATURE REVIEW  
Virtual Reality  
VR uses headsets to immerse users in simulated environments. It lets people explore a computer-generated  
world, giving it presence and reality [8]. VR is popular in entertainment, education, and healthcare. VR has  
transformed gaming, offering unprecedented immersion and involvement [9]. VR lets students visit historical  
locations, explore faraway worlds, and study hands-on [10]. VR also helps doctors perform complicated  
surgery and therapists address phobias and anxieties [11]. VR could improve our daily lives and change how  
we use technology. Thus, few studies compare VR's and AR's effects on spatial performance. Further research  
will assist construct virtual classes and let students choose technology that matches learning materials which  
help learners to improve their academic achievement and boost their spatial performance.  
Augmented Realiy  
AR adds digital information or virtual objects to reality. Blending computer-generated features with the real  
world improves our impression of realism. This cutting-edge technology lets users engage with virtual content  
in real time, offering an immersive experience [12]. AR is available on smartphones, tablets, smart glasses, and  
headsets. These gadgets show digital content based on the user's surroundings using cameras and sensors. As  
educators and academics see AR's potential to revolutionize teaching, its use in education is growing [13]. AR  
helps pupils understand abstract concepts by making them more tangible. AR lets pupils visualize difficult  
ideas, explore three-dimensional models, and interact with virtual things [14]. This engaging and interactive  
method boosts student engagement, retention, and comprehension. AR systems benefit engineering most [15].  
AR interfaces create a novel learning environment that may help overcome this cognitive filter by providing  
various learning experiences tailored to each student's needs and learning style representation methods to  
improve kids' spatial skills [16]. However, understanding how AR influence spatial performance and academic  
achievement of learners is critical for educational institutions to boost education.  
Spatial Performance  
Human spatial performance is the ability to perceive, analyze, and manipulate spatial information. The  
cognitive talents include spatial thinking, mental rotation, visualization, and remembering. Spatial performance  
involves visualizing things in three dimensions. Gardner [17] proposes that everyone has several forms of  
intelligence and spatial intelligence. Maier [18] added that spatial intelligence has five components: perception,  
visualization, mental rotation, spatial relations, and spatial rotations. This element of human cognition is vital  
for everyday tasks including navigating space, interpreting maps, understanding directions, and even playing  
sports or solving puzzles [19]. Reversely, the ability-as-enhancer theory states that high spatial abilities leave  
adequate cognitive load to analyze models [20]. Spatial skills have been linked to creativity, critical thinking,  
problem solving, and higher academic performance in educational settings [21], so studying their effects on  
students is important in engineering, geometry, mathematics, biology, chemistry, and physical education [22].  
Learners and developers of AR and VR education apps must understand spatial performance. New evidence on  
this scenario will help them design problem-solving applications and improve AR or VR cognitive capability.  
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XIV November 2025| Special Issue on Management  
Understanding how AR and VR enhance the brain processes and manipulates spatial information helps  
educators create successful teaching strategies for diverse learning styles as well as students to understand  
complicated subjects. Researchers have proven that spatial abilities may be increased through AR and VR,  
making it a significant area of attention for educators seeking academic achievement [23]. To that end, the  
difference of effect between AR and VR is critical and decisive.  
Academic Achievement  
A student's success or accomplishment is called academic achievement. Grades, test scores, class ranks, and  
academic achievement are included. Spatial performance improves critical thinking and problem-solving, in  
some studies, spatial performance affects student academic success, e.g., MIX [24] reported that spatial  
abilities are needed to visualize and manipulate complex notions in math and science. In other words, mental  
rotation and mathematics are linked to each other. Students can over-come 3D object movement and technical  
drawing class hurdles by using AR or VR to improve their spatial abilities [25]. Students can utilize AR or VR  
to interact with virtual representations of molecules or organisms to better comprehend their structure and  
function [26]. To that end, AR and VR could be utilized to create safe and regulated virtual simulations and  
settings for learners to practice and apply their skills.  
DISCUSSIONS OF RESULTS  
Changes in major brain networks affect how people absorb sensory information, develop spatial  
representations, and plan and manage navigational actions, according to several studies. Spatial performance is  
growing increasingly essential as more jobs require it. It explains item-space relationships. To improve spatial  
intelligence, many paper-based tests on AR and VR's role in spatial performance have been created. Medical  
students can practice surgery in VR before doing it on patients. Improves skills and reduces patient risk. Akkuş  
[14] reported that AR affects engineering students' spatial performance. AR apps can enhance technical  
drawing students' spatial skills, they suggested. AR can transport pupils to other times and places in history  
and geography classes. AR and VR may change education by engaging all senses and increasing participation.  
Lee et al. (2023) [27] found that AVR-based technique for 360-degree spatial visualization, allowing users to  
comprehend contextual information. In the same context, Stammler et al. 2023 [28] developed an AR-based  
app for treating spatial deficit, including visual exploratory training. Their findings show that natural  
connection with the physical environment during fun activities reduces spatial neglect side effects.  
In brief, AR provides remarkable visual realism and enhances environmental awareness, sophisticated idea  
absorption, and enhanced learning in real-life and unreal circumstances. VR promotes abstract thinking, high-  
level learning, and complicated subject generalization despite its reduced visual real-ism. Visual realism  
depends on the course's objective and application. Learning is enhanced by visual reality [29]. Thus. AR  
enhances spatial performance better than VR. VR surgery in medicine courses involves extremely accurate  
human body representations and demands the most authentic surroundings, although AR would be more  
useful. Historic building representations may benefit more from AR's high real-ism and object immersion than  
VR [30]. Even with low visual realism, VR may im-prove gaming, scientific visualizations, and visual arts  
since these settings are based on symbolization and abstraction. In conclusion, few empirical studies have  
examined the effects of AR and VR on learner spatial performance and academic achievement, and it is  
unclear which technology is better at preserving knowledge in learners' minds, how much AR outperforms VR,  
and how much AR and VR develop human brain special memory [31]. The literature should illustrate how AR  
or VR affects spatial memory performance or whether AR cue changes distract users and VR is better. These  
challenges needed proof to show how AR and VR affect learners' spatial memory. AR lessons may seem more  
like real-world navigation than VR classes, therefore employing AR for exploration might improve learner  
experience and spatial memory performance. Table 1 summarize the recent findings from studies that  
examined the influence of AR and VR on spatial performance of learners and their academic achievement.  
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)  
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Table I The Impact Of Vr And Vr On Academic Achievement, Considering Spatially Related Problems  
Authors  
Objective  
Findings  
Lee et al, 2023 Discusses  
an  
approach  
to AVR-based approach enables  
users  
to easily  
[27]  
augmented VR (AVR) and 360- understand the surrounding contextual information  
degree spatial visualization  
Zhao et al, 2023 Evaluating AR landmark cues The world-fixed frame of reference resulted in better  
[3] and frame of reference displays spatial learning when there were no landmarks cued;  
with VR  
adding AR landmark cues marginally improved spatial  
learning in the screen-fixed condition  
Stammler et al, Develop an AR-based app for Through participants’ natural interaction with the  
2023 [28] the treatment of spatial neglect physical surrounding environment during playful  
that combines visual  
exploration training  
tasks, side effects as symptoms of spatial neglect are  
minimized  
Partala et al, 2023 Examine walk-in AR model to The participants also gave relatively high ratings for  
[32] present an attraction to tourist spatial presence while viewing the 3D model using  
near the original attraction tablet-based AR  
Stübl et al, 2023 Develop a spatial AR system, The usage of human pose estimation would enable the  
[29]  
where  
a
projector  
directly workers to interact with the AR system in a natural  
displays information on way  
the product to assist the worker  
Majeed  
AlRikabi,  
[30]  
and Examine the effect of AT AR technology has a positive on spatial intelligence in  
2022 technology  
on  
spatial mathematics  
intelligence among high school  
students  
Volmer et al, 2022 Investigate  
[4] under a sub-optimal scenario by throughout sleep deprivation  
depriving users of sleep  
through spatial AR tool  
predictive  
cues Providing spatial AR predictive cues was beneficial  
Azarby and Rice, Explores the differences in The results showed significant space size variations  
2022 [31]  
spatial perception between an produced by participants between and within the two  
immersive AR and traditional different VR systems  
VR  
A review of above findings reveals that AR provides high visual realism and facilitates significant perception  
of details in the surrounding environment, incorporation of abstract concepts, and advanced learning in  
scenarios connecting learners to real life and immersion with unreal objects [33]. VR, on the other hand,  
exhibits less effective visual realism while nevertheless encouraging abstract thinking such as in mathematics  
[34], high-level understanding, and generalization of complicated concepts. The demand for low and high  
visual realism is frequently determined by the application and goal of the learning course. High visual realism  
can often significantly assist information acquisition and transfer in education and training. As a result, we  
conclude that AR is more effective than VR in terms of improving the spatial performance. Virtual surgery in  
medicine courses, for example, frequently uses highly de-tailed representations of the human body and  
requires the highest degree of natural environments which is more effective if AR was deployed to provide a  
simulation for human body, as well as people involved in historic architecture visualizations may benefit more  
from AR in demonstrating high realism with high-level immersion with objects in realism comparing to VR. In  
summary, the recent findings in AR and VR applications for academic purposes shows some gaps, such as the  
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lack of standardized platforms and tools for educators to easily integrate these technologies into their  
curriculum. Additionally, there is a need for more research on the effectiveness of AR and VR in enhancing  
student learning outcomes and engagement in various academic subjects. Furthermore, there is a lack of  
training and professional development opportunities for educators to effectively utilize AR and VR technology  
in the class-room. Also, the gaps in the effect of AR and VR on the spatial performance of learners must be  
explored further in order to fully understand the impact of these technologies on student learning. In addition,  
more studies are needed to determine the long-term effects of incorporating AR and VR into educational  
practices. Addressing these gaps will be crucial in harnessing the full potential of AR and VR in academic  
settings.  
While the findings of this study and prior literature indicate that AR often demonstrates stronger effects on  
spatial performance due to its high visual realism and environmental integration, it is important to  
acknowledge situations in which VR may be more advantageous. VR appears particularly effective in learning  
contexts that emphasize abstract reasoning, symbolic representation, and conceptual generalization, such as  
advanced mathematics, scientific visualization, and theoretical modeling. In addition, VR offers clear  
advantages for simulating dangerous, costly, or inaccessible environments, including surgical training,  
hazardous industrial operations, disaster response scenarios, and space or deep-sea exploration. In such cases,  
full immersion within a controlled virtual environment allows learners to repeatedly practice complex spatial  
tasks without real-world risk, which may not be feasible through AR alone.  
From a practical perspective, the results suggest several actionable recommendations for educators and  
developers. First, the selection of AR or VR platforms should be aligned with learning objectives rather than  
technological novelty. AR is better suited for courses requiring strong connections between physical  
environments and digital overlays, such as engineering drawing, architecture, geography, and anatomy. VR, on  
the other hand, may be more appropriate for abstract spatial reasoning, procedural training, and simulations  
where real-world access is limited. Second, effective integration of AR and VR requires structured  
instructional design, including guided tasks, clear spatial cues, and reflection activities, rather than unguided  
exploration. Third, educators should receive targeted training that focuses not only on technical operation, but  
also on pedagogical strategies for embedding VR and AR into assessment, feedback, and collaborative  
learning activities.  
Despite promising results, several gaps remain that warrant further investigation. One major limitation in the  
current body of research is the lack of evidence on long-term learning retention and spatial memory durability  
following AR and VR interventions. Most studies focus on short-term performance gains, making it unclear  
whether these technologies support sustained cognitive development over time. Accessibility also remains a  
concern, as learners with visual impairments, motion sensitivity, or limited technological resources may  
experience barriers when using VR or AR systems. In addition, the cost-effectiveness of large-scale  
implementation is still underexplored, particularly in public education settings where hardware, software  
maintenance, and training expenses may limit adoption.  
Future research should therefore move beyond comparative performance outcomes and examine longitudinal  
learning effects, inclusive design approaches, and economic feasibility models. Studies that combine  
behavioral data with cognitive and neuroscientific measures may also provide deeper insight into how AR and  
VR influence spatial memory and brain-based learning processes. Addressing these issues will support more  
informed decisions regarding real-world implementation and help ensure that VR and AR technologies are  
deployed in ways that are pedagogically meaningful, equitable, and sustainable.  
CONCLUSIONS  
The review of literature shows that both AR and VR have benefits in educational settings. In this regard, AR's  
ability is significant for improving spatial skills, reduce cognitive load, support collaborative learning, and  
provide practical, accessible applications gives it a clear advantage over VR in terms of fostering and  
improving learners' spatial performance. Moreover, AR's contextual integration of digital aspects with the  
actual world is well-suited to educational purposes, making it a more effective tool for improving learning  
experiences and results. In addition, AR's interactive nature allows for a more engaging and immersive  
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learning experience, helping to keep students focused and motivated. Hence, the practical applications of AR  
in fields such as science, engineering, and medicine also make it a valuable tool for enhancing learner’s  
understanding and retention of complex concepts. Overall, the potential impact of AR on academic  
achievement is significant, making it a crucial technology to incorporate into educational settings for the  
benefit of learners' spatial skills and overall learning outcomes. By providing learners with hands-on  
experiences and real-world simulations, AR can bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical  
application. This not only helps students grasp difficult concepts more easily but also prepares them for  
success in their future careers. In sum, AR is better than VR for customizing learning experiences in spatial  
scenario based which give an added ad-vantage for learners to boost their academic achievement and improve  
their spatial performance.  
ACKNOWLEDGMENT  
This research is funded by Universiti Malaysia Pahang Al-Sultan Abdullah (UMPSA) under the Postgraduate  
Research Scheme PGRS2003105 grant. The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to UMPSA  
for the continuous support and funding provided for this study.  
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