ABSTRACT

This study compared the effects of structured (e.g., football, martial arts) and unstructured (e.g., free play)

physical activity on cognitive inhibition in 120 Moroccan children aged 9–12 years, using a culturally adapted

curricula. Longitudinal studies and neural measures are recommended to explore underlying mechanisms and

improve free-play environments.

Keywords: cognitive inhibition, Stroop test, structured physical activity, unstructured physical activity,

Moroccan children, physical education

Cognitive inhibition, a critical component of executive functions, enables children aged 9 to 12 years to suppress

inappropriate automatic responses, supporting academic success, self-regulation, and social interactions.

Physical activity, whether structured (e.g., team sports requiring planning and strategy) or unstructured (e.g., free

play), may influence cognitive performance during this pivotal developmental period. The Stroop test, a

standardized tool for assessing inhibition, measures the ability to inhibit cognitive interference in incongruent

improved performance on the Flanker test, a measure similar to the Stroop test (Hillman et al., 2009). Similarly,

Kao et al. (2023) reported that high-intensity interval exercise (HIIT) outperformed moderate-intensity

continuous exercise (MICT) in enhancing Stroop performance, with increased DLPFC activation (Kao et al.,

2023). Chronic interventions, such as sports games (Chen et al., 2024) or speed and agility programs (Trecroci

et al., 2022), have shown sustained improvements in inhibition among typically developing children and those

with conditions like ADHD (Christiansen et al., 2019).

The effects of physical activity, however, vary by type. Structured physical activities, such as team sports

requiring strategic planning and coordination, may impose a higher cognitive load compared to unstructured

activities like free play, which emphasize creativity and autonomy (Barker et al., 2014; Yogman et al., 2018).

For example, Ishihara et al. (2018) found that children participating in sports exhibited better executive function

Despite these findings, direct comparisons of structured and unstructured physical activities in specific cultural

contexts, such as among Moroccan children aged 9 to 12 years, remain scarce, even though this period is critical

for executive function development (Best & Miller, 2010). Moroccan children face unique challenges, including

limited access to structured sports programs and safe free-play environments, which may impact their

opportunities to enhance cognitive inhibition (Yogman et al., 2018). Preliminary evidence suggests that children

engaged in unstructured activities exhibit more uncorrected errors on the Stroop test compared to those in

structured activities, with no differences in completion time, necessitating further exploration of these dynamics

(Kou et al., 2024).

This study addresses this research gap by evaluating the effects of structured and unstructured physical activity

on Stroop test performance among 120 Moroccan children aged 9 to 12 years, focusing on the number of

potential implications for education and public health.

The sample comprised 120 Moroccan children aged 9–12 years (Grades 4–7), equally divided into two groups

(N = 60 each): structured and unstructured physical activity. The unstructured group included children from a

rural mountainous area not engaged in organized sports, with an unbalanced gender distribution. The structured

group included semi-urban children, with 30 practicing football (males only) in clubs and 30 practicing martial

arts (males and females). Socio-economic similarity was verified via parental demographic questionnaires.

Convenience sampling selected participants from primary and preparatory schools. Children with cognitive or

physical disabilities preventing Stroop test performance were excluded based on school and parental reports.

mismatched colors) measured completion time (seconds) and uncorrected errors (incorrect responses not self-

corrected). The paper-based test used standardized 100-item word lists for accuracy. Data were manually

recorded using a precise stopwatch, with errors verified by trained researchers .

The Stroop test was conducted in controlled, quiet settings (school classrooms and a football club room) to

minimize distractions. Standardized instructions in Moroccan Darija were provided, followed by a 5-minute

practice session. Each child completed the test individually between 8:00–11:00 AM to reduce fatigue/stress

effects, with each test lasting approximately 15 minutes. Conditions (lighting, noise, seating) were standardized.

Data were collected from both groups between October and November 2024 for fair comparison and entered

The R software was used for data analysis. Descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) were calculated

for completion time and uncorrected errors by physical activity type (structured and unstructured). The Shapiro-

Wilk test was conducted to check data normality, revealing a non-normal distribution for both variables (p <

activity on cognitive inhibition using the Stroop test. The study focused on measuring completion time (in

seconds) and the number of uncorrected errors. Due to the non-normal distribution of data, the Mann-Whitney

U test was used to compare groups, and Spearman’s correlation test examined the relationship between variables.

Descriptive statistics summarized performance, and box plots visually represented distributions.

Table 1 presents the means and standard deviations for completion time and uncorrected errors by physical

activity type. The unstructured group recorded a higher mean number of errors (M = 4.63, SD = 1.41) compared

to the structured group (M = 2.87, SD = 1.80). Conversely, completion time was slightly longer in the structured

group (M = 237.90, SD = 60.50) than in the unstructured group (M = 218.87, SD = 51.86).

Table 1: Descriptive Statistics for Completion Time and Number of Uncorrected Errors by Physical Activity

revealed a significant difference in the number of uncorrected errors (W = 2759.50, p < .001, r = .47), with a

medium-to-large effect size, supporting hypothesis H1 that the structured group exhibits fewer errors than the

unstructured group. No significant difference was observed for completion time (W = 1499.50, p = .120, r = -

.14), contradicting hypothesis H2.

Table 2: Results of Mann-Whitney U Tests Comparing Completion Time and Number of Errors Between

Physical Activity Types

Note: Effect size (r) is reported alongside test statistics. Significant differences were found in the number of

errors but not in completion time.

Correlation Analysis

Table 3 presents the results of Spearman’s correlation test examining the relationship between completion time

types and measured variables.

Visual Distributions

Figure 1:Distribution of Completion Time and Number of Uncorrected Errors in the Stroop Test by Physical

Activity Type

Note: Figure 1 presents box plots for completion time (in seconds) and uncorrected errors in the Stroop test for

120 Moroccan children (N = 60 per group) in structured and unstructured physical activity groups. The plots

illustrate non-normal distributions, highlighting a significant difference in errors (p < .001) and no difference in

completion time (p = .120).

stimulating dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) activation (Diamond, 2000). The lack of differences in

academic outcomes and well-being. They also highlight challenges with free-play environments in Morocco,

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency.

https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.29436965. Raw participant-level data are available from the corresponding