backgrounds. PSA stemming from various factors such as physiology, behaviour and cognitive may negatively

impact confidence and performance in speech delivery. Thus, this study analysed the relationship between

physiological, behavioural and cognitive components as the core theoretical framework. This quantitative

study was conducted among 128 students from a local university in Malaysia using a structured questionnaire

survey. Data were collected via a 5-point Likert scale survey to identify the three main components using 17

specific items as the instrument adapted from Bartholomay & Houlihan (2016). The general findings portray a

positive relationship between all three theoretical constructs, highlighting the behavioural factor as the key

determinant. Hence, this study is important for students and educators to explore strategies in minimising the

effects of PSA by understanding the three crucial sources.

public discussions are integral to assessment and professional preparation (Chin, 2025). While these activities

aim to strengthen students’ communication competence for future careers, they may inadvertently place those

experiencing PSA at a significant disadvantage.

PSA, or glossophobia, is one of the most prevalent forms of social anxiety and has been shown to significantly

affect academic performance, self-esteem, and professional readiness (Bodie, 2010). It is characterised by fear

or apprehension when anticipating or engaging in oral communication before an audience (Dwyer & Davidson,

2012) and is often described in terms of cognitive, behavioural, and physiological dimensions. Cognitive

symptoms normally involve negative thinking, self-doubt, and fear of negative evaluation. Behavioural

symptoms include avoidance or nervous mannerisms such as fidgeting or rigid posture, and physiological

symptoms manifest as sweating, trembling, or increased heart rate (Bartholomay & Houlihan, 2016). These

Additionally, research also shows that Malaysian students use various strategies to manage PSA including

relaxation, and preparation routines. However, the effectiveness of these strategies depends on the interaction

between the cognitive, behavioural, and physiological aspects of PSA (Tee et al., 2022). Considering the

previous studies, while PSA has been widely studied worldwide, Malaysian research has mostly focused on

experiences of its three main dimensions. Given Malaysia’s unique socio-cultural and linguistic setting, PSA

among local undergraduates may differ greatly from that in other contexts (Chin, 2025; Tee et al., 2022).

Exploring these experiences, therefore, could provide valuable insights for designing targeted educational and

psychological support.

This study is done to explore anxiety in public speaking. Specifically, this study is done to answer the

following questions:

Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), proposed by Albert Bandura (1986), describes learning and behaviour as the

results of dynamic interaction between behavioural patterns, personal factors, and environmental conditions.

The key principle of the theory is self-efficacy, the belief in one’s ability to successfully perform a specific

task. This belief directly influences an individual’s motivation, emotional control, and performance outcomes.

In the context of PSA, learners with low self-efficacy often anticipate poor performance, heightened avoidance

tendencies, and physiological arousal, whereas those with high self-efficacy tend to persist and perform

effectively when faced with challenges (Ahmad et al., 2025). According to Ibrahim et al. (2022), as noted by

SCT, observational learning also influences this belief, where seeing other peers deliver confident speeches can

reduce anxiety, while witnessing negative speaking experiences can reinforce the fear of speaking.

Physiological states are another key influence within SCT. Physical reactions that include a pounding heart,

Public speaking anxiety (PSA) has been widely discussed in research in communication and psychology fields.

The definition of PSA has also evolved alongside its theoretical development. The foundational definition of

individual’s level of fear or anxiety associated with either real or anticipated communication with another

person or persons” (p.78). The Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (PRCA-24) was later

developed by McCroskey as an instrument to measure PSA (McCroskey, 1982).

1990).

Bartholomay and Houlihan (2016) categorized three factors of PSA; cognitive, behavioral, and psychological

anxiety as related to physiological, cognitive, and behavioral responses (Lang, 1967, 1979; Lang, Cuthbert, &

Bradley, 1998; Lang, Levin, Miller, & Kozak, 1983). These responses may be triggered individually or

together. For example, one may have a strong physiological response due to anxiety but not so much for the

other two.

Many studies have been carried out to explore the prevalence, causes, and possible solutions for public

and over 50% attributed this fear to lack of confidence. Furthermore, 82% believed that the size of the

audience played a significant role in their anxiety. Importantly, 95% of the students believed that with proper

counselling, instruction, and coaching, their public speaking anxiety could be overcome. The study highlighted

that exposure to virtual environments and regular practice were effective strategies to build confidence and

minimise anxiety, and it emphasised the need for supportive instruction and systematic confidence-building

activities in educational settings.

Meanwhile, Naser and Isa (2021) focused their inquiry on determining the level of public speaking anxiety in

oral presentation classes and its correlation with classroom performance among undergraduates at UiTM Shah

Alam. Their quantitative study randomly selected 150 students who had completed the English for Oral

Presentation subject (ELC590) and measured anxiety using the Public Speaking Classroom Anxiety Scale

scores. This echoed findings from similar studies, suggesting the urgent need for tailored pedagogical

approaches and classroom environments that explicitly address speaking anxiety.

According to the social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986), some factors influence how a person views anxiety.

In public speaking, anxiety is influenced by speakers' personal perceptions and feedback received by the

speaker. In addition to that, during the presentation, the speaker is also influenced by what happens in the

surrounding environment (Rahmat, 2019). Figure 1 below shows the conceptual framework of the study. This

study explores the sources of PSA. According to Bartholomay & Houlihan (2016), there are three sources of

PSA. The first source is cognitive factors. Cognitive factors refer to the learner’s personal perceptions of the

speech. This perception includes the speaker thinking that giving a speech is terrifying. It also includes the

factors for public speaking anxiety.

survey. The categories used for the Likert scale; 1 is for Never, 2 is for Rarely, 3 is for Sometimes, 4 is for Very

Often and 5 is for Always.

Table 1 displays the percentage for demographic profile of the respondents involved in this study. Two main

categories extracted are the gender and self-rating English Proficiency. The Gender item shows a balanced

distribution between male respondents (49%) and female respondents (51%). Additionally, the majority of the

respondents (92%) rated themselves as someone who can understand English, while the remaining (8%) cannot

Item 3 (mean=3.8, SD=1.0) on the other hand, reports that the learners were nervous that they would

Figure 2 presents the mean for behavioural components. Item 2 (mean=3.3,SD=1.1) states that the learners

eye contact with their audience. Item 1 (mean=3.1,SD=1.2) states that their hands shook when they gave the

common physical experiences in PSA, aligning with findings from previous studies that indicated these

these physiological responses can influence self-efficacy in different ways. For instance, some speakers

anxiety, data is analysed using SPSS for correlations. Results are presented separately in table 2 and 3 below.

there is also a strong positive relationship between behavioural and physiological components.