This study examines how demotivating classroom factors impact self-perceived communicative confidence

This counterintuitive finding suggests that higher-confidence students felt demotivated by under-stimulation in

class. These results are interpreted through the lenses of Self-Determination Theory (psychological need

thwarting) and Expectancy-Value Theory (lowered success expectancies). The findings underscore the need for

differentiated student-centred approaches—including technology-integrated and confidence-building

strategies—to sustain motivation and communicative confidence in Arabic. A new framework for understanding

demotivation–confidence dynamics is proposed, and practical pedagogical interventions for Arabic language

teaching are discussed.

Keywords: demotivation; self-perceived communicative competence (SPCC); Arabic language learning;

motivation; class environment; differentiated instruction

perceived communicative confidence (SPCC), or the student’s self-appraisal of their ability to communicate in

the target language. SPCC is closely related to constructs like linguistic self-confidence and willingness to

communicate in a second language (MacIntyre et al., 1998). Prior work suggests that when learners feel confident

in using the language, they are more likely to engage in communication and practice, which in turn improves

proficiency (MacIntyre et al., 1998). Conversely, demotivating experiences can erode learners’ confidence,

creating a vicious cycle of withdrawal and stagnation in language development (Peng & Woodrow, 2010).

Arabic as a foreign language provides a unique context to explore these questions. In Malaysia, Arabic is usually

learnt for religious, academic or career reasons, but many learners struggle to stay motivated (Aladdin, 2012).

Educators often observe that students are reluctant to engage in Arabic communication despite initial interest

(e.g. to understand religious texts or to connect to Arabic culture). Possible reasons for this include the perceived

& Takeuchi, 2010). Such findings emphasise how demotivation can result from unmet psychological needs (e.g.

feeling controlled or incompetent) and a low expectation of meaningful reward (Deci & Ryan, 2000).

Despite the growing interest in L2 learners' demotivation (Dörnyei, 2001; Sakai & Kikuchi, 2009), the

relationship between demotivating factors and learners’ communicative confidence has rarely been quantified,

especially in Arabic learners. In a recent study conducted in Malaysia on English as a second language, students’

SPCC was found to be negatively associated with their overall demotivation level (Kamarudin et al., 2021),

implying that as demotivation increases, confidence in using the L2 decreases. However, it is unclear whether

the same pattern holds for Arabic, which differs from English in terms of linguistic distance and cultural status.

In addition, different types of demotivating factors (e.g. teacher behaviour, classroom environment, difficulty of

content) might have different effects on learner confidence. Understanding these nuanced relationships is

for a deeper theoretical consideration of how demotivating experiences can thwart basic psychological needs or

lower expectations of success and thus affect communicative confidence. By integrating Self-Determination

Theory (SDT) and Expectancy-Value Theory (EVT) into the analysis, this study provides a more comprehensive

understanding of why certain factors in the classroom demotivate learners and how this demotivation translates

into decreased confidence in Arabic language use.

Building on the above, the study was guided by the following questions: (1) What are the prominent demotivating

factors perceived by Malaysian university students in their Arabic language classes? (2) To what extent is each

demotivating factor associated with students’ self-perceived communicative confidence in Arabic? We

hypothesized that most demotivating factors would show significant negative correlations with SPCC, consistent

with prior findings in other L2 contexts. However, we also anticipated the possibility of more complex patterns

learner engagement. Early work (Dörnyei, 2001; Sakai & Kikuchi, 2009) identified teacher behaviour, class

characteristics, materials, environment, and difficulty as common sources of demotivation. Recent studies

emphasize affective dimensions, showing that boredom and lack of enjoyment correlate with reduced willingness

to communicate (Derakhshan et al., 2022; Kruk et al., 2022).

In the Arabic language context, demotivation has been widely observed. Alrabai (2014) and Aladdin (2012)

documented challenges such as memorization-heavy methods, exam-focused curricula, and limited opportunities

for communicative practice. Qualitative studies in Indonesian boarding schools further showed that highly

traditional Arabic instruction left students feeling restricted and demotivated due to lack of autonomy (Sugita &

Takeuchi, 2010). In Malaysia, cultural norms of respecting teachers often reduce reported teacher-related

Self-perceived communicative confidence (SPCC) has been linked with motivation and willingness to

communicate in L2 learning (MacIntyre et al., 1998). Studies in Malaysian universities (Kamarudin et al., 2021)

show that higher demotivation correlates with lower SPCC, yet nuanced patterns exist. Some learners with higher

classrooms relate to SPCC, and by interpreting these dynamics through SDT and EVT lenses.

This study draws on Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000) and Expectancy-Value Theory (Eccles &

Wigfield, 2002). SDT frames demotivators as thwarting needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness, while

EVT interprets them as lowering learners’ expectations of success and the value of learning Arabic. These

frameworks guide the interpretation of demotivating experiences in relation to SPCC.

In the specific context of learning Arabic, we can assign known demotivators to SDT needs. Harsh,

unsympathetic or overly strict behaviour from the teacher can hurt the sense of belonging in the class, making

students feel anxious or alienated. An intimidating teacher can even instill fear, which was identified as a

demotivator in a study on Arabic learning. Monotonous or rigid teaching methods – focusing only on rote

factor aligned with SDT is loss of interest, which is often due to the learning experience not fulfilling students’

intrinsic needs for stimulation or growth. In terms of SDT, students lose the intrinsic motivation that comes from

interest and curiosity when instruction is not optimally challenging or fun.

SDT provides a useful lens through which to interpret our findings: If a particular demotivating factor correlates

strongly with a low SPCC, this likely indicates which psychological need is being thwarted. For example, if the

experience of difficulty (perceiving Arabic as too difficult) emerges as a top demotivator, this can be seen as a

competence-thwarting condition – students feel frustrated by material that exceeds their current ability, which in

turn lowers their perceived competence (confidence) in using the language. If classroom monotony or lack of

interaction is a chief complaint, this suggests an environment that stifles autonomy and connectedness - students

may not feel personally involved or have a sense of community, leading to withdrawal. In the discussion, we

through loss of confidence in ultimate success. This dynamic is consistent with the notion of low self-efficacy

as a demotivator. Indeed, previous research has sometimes identified “lack of self-confidence” as an internal

demotivating factor (Sakai & Kikuchi, 2009; Kim & Seo, 2012). In our context, we hypothesise that students

who find Arabic extremely difficult will not only feel demotivated but also report lower SPCC as they do not

expect to communicate successfully in this language.

On the other side of EVT, value relates to a student’s goals, interests, and perceived usefulness of Arabic. If a

learner does not see value in mastering Arabic, motivation can decline even if they think they could succeed.

External pressures (like curriculum requirements) might keep them studying, but without personal value, their

engagement and confidence in using the language will be limited. Demotivators that reflect a lack of value

“demotivated by value conflict”– they do not identify with the “ideal L2 self” of an Arabic user. In such cases,

loss of interest and declining motivation go hand in hand with low SPCC; the student is unlikely to invest effort

in speaking practice or feel confident, because in their mind the language is not worth the effort. Conversely,

those who highly value Arabic (for integrative or instrumental reasons) may remain motivated and confident

despite obstacles.

EVT also helps explain counterintuitive findings. One possible outcome in this study (as previewed in the results)

is that students who already have high confidence might report being demotivated by certain class factors. How

could confidence relate to more demotivation? EVT would suggest looking at value: high-SPCC students might

value improvement and challenge; if the class is too easy or not enriching (low value for them), they could

employed a quantitative design to examine how specific demotivators impact SPCC. The methodology is

detailed next.

significant predictors, we interpret their β in context and note semi-partial correlations (to indicate a unique

contribution).

Although this is not a formal hypothesis, we conducted exploratory analyses to test for possible moderators.

Gender differences were tested with independent-samples t-tests, but there were no significant effects on SPCC

or demotivation (females had slightly higher SPCC). Prior ability (self-rated or exam grades) showed a modest

correlation with SPCC, so we ran a post-hoc hierarchical regression controlling for ability; the pattern of

Kikuchi, 2009): high-SPCC learners (likely more proficient) perceived classes as insufficiently stimulating,

reporting demotivation due to boredom despite their confidence. EVT elucidates this as a collapse in value

Unexpectedly, lecturer behaviour was the least cited demotivator and unrelated to SPCC, potentially reflecting

low SPCC mutually reinforce withdrawal from practice, perpetuating stagnation. To disrupt this cycle, we

propose targeted interventions: (1) differentiated instruction (enrichment for advanced learners, scaffolding for

beginners); (2) communicative task variety (role-plays, projects) to combat monotony; (3) creating opportunities

for low-stakes, personalized practice to build competence and autonomy; and (4) micro-success designs to

incrementally build confidence. These strategies address the core demotivators while leveraging SDT/EVT

principles to sustain both motivation and communicative growth.

results. Finally, the context of a single institution means that the results may reflect local curricula and teaching

approaches rather than general trends.

This study provides the first empirical evidence that demotivation and SPCC operate in Arabic learning via

SDT/EVT mechanisms, revealing the critical 'underchallenge' paradox in learners with high self-confidence.

Drawing on self-determination theory and expectancy-value theory, the study proposed that demotivators in

Arabic learning can be viewed as need-inhibiting or expectancy-reducing influences, which in turn negatively

affect learners’ confidence in communication. The findings largely support this framework: most demotivating

factors in the classroom – particularly the difficulty of learning Arabic and an unsupportive classroom

environment – were associated with lower communicative confidence. These findings are consistent with

in the classroom and SPCC shows that learners are not monolithic – some do not engage because the material is

beyond their ability (leading to low confidence), while others do not engage because the material is below their

ability (despite high confidence). A psycholinguistic perspective must take into account such individual

differences and the dynamic interplay between the learner's affect and the difficulty of the input.

The integration of SDT and EVT proved fruitful in the interpretation of our data. Demotivating factors such as

the experience of difficulty can be clearly linked to skill need, frustration and low expectation of success, which

when language proficiency is relatively high.

From a theoretical perspective, this study emphasises the value of considering motivation and self-confidence

together. SPCC can be both a result of sustained motivation and a mediator that influences whether motivation

translates into actual communication. We argue for more research that builds bridges between motivational

constructs (such as demotivation, attitudes, values) and communication-oriented constructs (such as SPCC,

WTC, anxiety). In practise, a learner does not separate these constructs – their decision to raise their hand and

speak Arabic in class probably depends on a mixture of self-confidence (“Do I think I can do it?”), motivation

(“Do I want to do it?”) and situational cues (“Is this class encouraging?”). By addressing demotivating factors,

we essentially remove some barriers to the desire and courage to communicate.

Pedagogically, our findings lead to specific recommendations: Foster a supportive, engaging and autonomous

classroom climate; provide optimal challenges for all ability levels; incorporate meaningful and enjoyable

communicative activities; and promote student confidence through gradual approach and strategy training.

particular, and UiTM in general, for their continuous support in conducting this research.

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