ILEIID 2025 | International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)
ISSN: 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS
Special Issue | Volume IX Issue XXII October 2025
Page 436
www.rsisinternational.org
Malaysian ESL Undergraduates’ Perspectives on Fossilisation in
Spoken English
1
Nurul Iman Jesmin Binti Muhammad Sharifuddin,
*2
Nor Nadia Binti Raslee
1,2
Academy of Language Studies, University Technology MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam, Selangor,
Malaysia.
*Corresponding Author
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.922ILEIID0044
Received: 26 September 2025; Accepted: 03 October 2025; Published: 22 October 2025
ABSTRACT
Fossilisation is a phenomenon in second language acquisition where learners stop progressing beyond the
language skills that they have already mastered. This often leads to the persistence of L1 related errors that can
be detected in their L2. This often results in the second language having linguistic errors which, over time,
become normalised and accepted. To investigate how learners perceive language fossilisation, a qualitative study
was carried out on Malaysian ESL undergraduates. Grounded in Selinker’s (1972) Interlanguage Theory, a
thematic analysis was adopted to analyse respondents’ interviews. The findings revealed that respondents
perceived fossilised linguistic errors as socially acceptable in informal contexts. Fossilised language is used to
prioritise fluency and comfort in communicating rather than grammatical accuracies. Respondents also perceived
that the main contributors to fossilisation were overexposure to informal English, and a limited vocabulary range.
Fossilization can be remedied with learner feedback and self-regulation strategies. The study concluded that
fossilisation is shaped by sociocultural norms as much as linguistic competence. The findings highlight the need
for pedagogical strategies that are feedback-rich and context-sensitive. Meanwhile, teacher training must also
address entrenched patterns in language learning.
Keywords: (ESL, language fossilisation)
INTRODUCTION
A multiethnic country such as Malaysia consists of a varied population namely, Malay and Bumiputera, Chinese,
and Indian communities (Department of Statistics Malaysia, 2025). The official language of Malaysia is Malay
while English is a second language taught as a compulsory subject throughout the national schooling system
(Rahman et al., 2022). Malaysian students attending public schools learning the national curriculum will learn
English as a second language throughout their primary to secondary levels for 11 years (6 years in primary and
5 years in secondary). With English being the second most spoken language in Malaysia, most Malaysians
encounter it daily as it coexists with Malay or other mother tongues (Rahman et al., 2022). Students spend over
a decade learning English formally, however, many were reported as unable to produce English that is accurate
and fluent by the time they complete their schooling years.
Over time, habitual linguistic errors may form as learners struggle to speak accurately. This phenomenon is
known as fossilisation. Similar to other ESL speakers, Malaysian learners experience fossilisation due to a lack
of vocabulary, minimal corrective feedback, and strong influence from their first language (L1) (Azman &
Razali, 2024). Entrenched, non-standard forms of language mean that speakers repeatedly use specific speech
patterns that are acceptable in their social circles. Additionally, to foster social belonging, code-mixing is
normalized and not always perceived as errors (Roslan et al., 2021; Yusof et al., 2023). Therefore, this study
seeks to explore the perspectives of the ESL learners and to study their views and beliefs regarding fossilisation
in their spoken English. Additionally, it can help shed light on their awareness of fossilised errors and what they
believe are the factors contributing to fossilisation. This study is guided by the following research questions:
ILEIID 2025 | International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)
ISSN: 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS
Special Issue | Volume IX Issue XXII October 2025
Page 437
www.rsisinternational.org
1. What are the learners’ perceptions of their use of fossilised spoken English?
2. According to the learners, what factors contribute to fossilisation?
3. Do learners believe that using more English, even slang or informal language, in daily conversations would
help them improve?
LITERATURE REVIEW
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Interlanguage Theory posits that second language learners develop an interim linguistic system distinct from
both their first language (L1) and the target language (L2) (Selinker, 1972). This interlanguage features its own
vocabulary and styles as speakers alternate between the L1 and L2. The development of the interlanguage can
stall due to fossilisation, where certain non-target forms become stable and resistant to change (Shiddiq &
Oktaviani, 2022; Xu, 2022). Research indicates that fossilisation is encouraged by negative L1 transfer and a
lack of corrective feedback (Tang & Yang, 2023).
A significant contributor to learners’ fossilisation is their reliance on their first language and the extent to which
their L1 influences their L2. This is displayed, for instance, in their preference for local vernaculars to preserve
their L1 identity, for convenience, and to fit in with social norms. Malaysian ESL learners were found to have a
higher tendency to use Manglish because of its similarity and familiarity to their mother-tongue habits as well
as to fulfil the need for social identity (Yusof et al., 2023), and also because of efficiency and a sense of belonging
(Roslan et al., 2021). Ultimately, speakers have entrenched errors in speech contributing to fossilisation mainly
due to their limited vocabulary, lack of corrective feedback, and strong L1 influence (Azman & Razali, 2024).
Language fossilisation is not unique to Malaysia. Among Chinese ESL learners, students rely on L1 structures
as linguistic scaffolds for their L2 production (Tang & Yang, 2023). This may lead to learners having minimal
improvements in L2 grammar and phonology despite continued exposure (Xu, 2022). It can be implied that L1
interference and a lack of corrective feedback remain the major reasons why fossilisation persists in L2 learners.
The pedagogical implications of fossilization in the context of ESL teaching warrant further exploration. To
elaborate, further research can be carried out on investigating the specific empirical approaches and
methodologies educators can apply to deter the impacts of fossilization within the ESL context. Ellis (2024)
reiterated that while some educators emphasised the integration of "focus on form" in the teaching and learning,
there is a lack of systematic, instructional frameworks that addresses fossilized errors. Therefore, while "focusing
on form" can guide and remind learners of the correct vocabulary and grammar use, this method lacks the
theoretical backing and is perceived as insufficient (Ellis, 2024). Further area of investigation can be explored
to see how instructional methods can be adapted to address fossilization (Fouz-González, 2018). This is because
in the classroom, learners’ participation and the entire classroom dynamics were found to have implications on
how fossilization is confronted (Bernales, 2016). Dialogic interactions are proven to minimise fossilization, but
further research can explore the specific strategies related in such interactions remain underexplored (Bernales,
2016).
Next, there is a gap in fossilization and the social dynamics aspects of language learning. Research suggests that
more research can be done on the aspects of self-efficacy, self-awareness and cooperative learning strategies
(Zahidi & Ong, 2023). Despite formal lessons in the classroom, self-reflection and self-monitoring are crucial in
making a positive impact in the learners’ language journey.
METHODOLOGY
To explore the perspectives of Malaysian ESL undergraduates on fossilisation in spoken English, a quantitative
approach was appropriate. One limitation of the study is the small sampling, only involving eight respondents.
This small sample constituted a focused pool of respondents that is appropriate for in-depth interviews.
Respondents were chosen purposively (purposive sampling) since this can ensure rich, detailed data (Khamis et
ILEIID 2025 | International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)
ISSN: 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS
Special Issue | Volume IX Issue XXII October 2025
Page 438
www.rsisinternational.org
al., 2024; Lim, 2024). The criteria for sampling selection ensured that all participants were Malaysian ESL
undergraduates with active use of spoken English.
Data Collection Instrument and Procedure
The instrument for data collection was the semi-structured interview. A semi-structured interview combines
predetermined questions with the flexibility to probe further, allowing for the collection of detailed and nuanced
experiences. The interview protocol included open-ended questions constructed based on the research objectives,
theoretical framework, and past studies to fulfil the research questions. Data were collected from January to June
2025 through a series of online and face-to-face interviews, contingent upon respondents’ agreements and
preferences. All interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim.
Data Analysis
Transcribed interviews were analysed manually using thematic analysis, guided by Braun and Clarke’s six-phase
framework. Thematic analysis is a widely used qualitative analysis method suitable for this study because it
allows for flexibility and the ability to identify, analyse, and report patterns (themes) within data (Ahmad Harith
et al., 2021; Norliza et al., 2025). The process of coding involved repeated readings of the transcripts to achieve
familiarisation, followed by manual coding of the data. Codes obtained were categorised into themes, and the
emergent themes were organised in alignment with the research questions. This detailed method ensured a
rigorous interpretation of the responses, providing insights into learners' perceptions of fossilisation.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
The findings from the semi-structured interviews yielded significant insights into respondents’ perspectives on
fossilised spoken English and the contributing factors to the phenomenon.
Research Question 1: Perceptions of Fossilised Spoken English
The first research question explored how Malaysian ESL undergraduates perceive their own use of fossilised
spoken English. Respondents reported that they use informal English, code-mixing (Manglish), and fossilised
errors in daily interactions. They also reported that they are aware they are committing linguistic errors when
doing so. Findings revealed that ESL learners possess some level of awareness of their recurring errors, such as
mispronunciation, common grammatical mistakes in subject-verb agreement and tenses (e.g., has/have;
was/were), and the habitual use of Malay discourse markers like ‘lah’ and ‘kan’. This highlights the issue of
normalising linguistic errors, which consequently entrenches the errors further.
Respondents stated that they perceive these speech patterns as normal and socially acceptable. They also felt that
it strengthens rapport when communicating in informal settings within their social circles. Fossilised errors were
considered minor or inconsequential and were viewed as natural and appropriate for peer interactions, but not
acceptable or less common in formal English settings such as academic or professional contexts. Respondents
opined that the ability to switch linguistic features between these two contexts implied confidence in their
English-speaking abilities. Meanwhile, speakers who are hesitant and self-doubting are often not able to alternate
convincingly in formal situations and are often perceived as having code-switching conversations filled with
fossilised errors.
Research Question 2: Factors Contributing to Language Fossilisation
The second research question examined the contributing factors leading to fossilisation in learners’ spoken
English. The data acquired from the interviews revealed five major themes. Firstly, learners perceive that
fossilisation is mostly due to the influence of their first language (L1). Specifically, they acknowledged and
identified the strong influence of Malay and other native languages on their pronunciation and sentence structure.
Secondly, respondents cited contextual language choices as a factor. They described this as their strategy of
adapting their English based on social contexts, namely, using informal speech, code-switching, and Manglish
with friends, while attempting more formal English in academic or professional settings.
ILEIID 2025 | International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)
ISSN: 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS
Special Issue | Volume IX Issue XXII October 2025
Page 439
www.rsisinternational.org
The third theme was the normalisation of errors, which contributes to entrenched language errors. This can be
seen in the normalisation of code-mixing and fossilised errors within Malaysian society, where this way of
communicating has become widely accepted as a common communication style. The next contributing factor
was limited vocabulary and poor confidence. It appears that years of formal learning do not guarantee fluency
and accuracy in language production. Many learners struggle with restricted vocabulary and are unable to
smoothly retrieve learned words. This can lead to communication breakdowns, causing speakers to feel anxious
and inadequate. Since formal situations demand complex structures, these speakers tend to avoid them and
communicate only in simpler, more familiar ones.
Lastly, the final theme emerging from respondents’ perspectives was the influence of media and the environment.
Respondents acknowledged their heavy exposure to media, particularly social media, which is widespread with
informal language. Their extensive use of social media reinforced fossilisation through the use of casual speech
patterns and slang. In conclusion, these contributing factors worked in combination to create a context where L1
interference, social norms, and peer influence normalised the use of non-standard English. Comparatively,
intrinsic factors such as high anxiety, poor confidence, and limited vocabulary further discouraged speakers’
efforts to achieve accuracy in their language production.
Research Question 3: Beliefs About Using More English for Improvement
The third research question investigated respondents’ perceptions of whether the frequent use of English, in both
formal and informal varieties, could improve their proficiency. Unanimously, respondents agreed that
application and practice in both settings would lead to better proficiency and confidence. However, some
respondents shared a word of caution related to excessive exposure to informal language, which they believed
could lead speakers to master inaccurate language forms. An excessive reliance on slang and Manglish might
reinforce incorrect grammar and pronunciation, thereby deepening fossilisation. According to respondents, if
ESL learners believe exposure alone is enough to achieve proficiency, they may choose to use informal English
dominantly, which risks fossilising errors further. Hence, informal practices are helpful to build confidence and
conversational fluency but are not sufficient for mastering more formal or academic English.
DISCUSSION
This study’s findings provide an explanation of how Malaysian ESL undergraduates perceive and experience
fossilisation in their spoken English. The findings revealed that respondents are aware of their recurring errors
but feel that these errors are socially acceptable. This aligns with Interlanguage Theory, which suggests that
when learners deprioritize accuracy, their interim language systems can stabilise due to social and psychological
factors. For Malaysian ESL undergraduates, who alternate between Malay, English, and the local vernacular
"Manglish," Interlanguage Theory provides a practical lens for understanding how L1-shaped linguistic routines
persist even when learners possess explicit knowledge of the correct L2 rules. Furthermore, Yusof et al. (2023)
reported that this outlook is parallel with other studies where undergraduates view Manglish with positive
attitudes. ESL speakers did not view Manglish as a linguistic deficiency, but rather as a tool to ease
communication when linked to social contexts (Yusof et al., 2023). Code-switching and code-mixing are
considered normal when speakers are aiming for efficiency and solidarity (Roslan et al., 2021). Thus, when the
use of non-standard forms signals group belonging and achieves communicative goals, learners are less likely to
challenge these patterns, leading to further fossilisation of errors.
Fossilisation appears to be a result of the context-bound environment surrounding the learner rather than an
individual linguistic failure. The findings of this study—mother tongue interference, normalisation of informal
English, and media influence—further support this notion. Similarly, Azman and Razali (2024) also found that
L1 influence, a lack of corrective feedback, and environmental reinforcement are primary contributors to
fossilisation among Malaysian ESL learners. This is also consistent with the results from Xu’s (2022)
longitudinal research. Without targeted feedback, learners' grammar and phonology can remain stagnant despite
continued exposure to the target language. This is a familiar context in Malaysia, where learners have reported
poor mastery of English despite prolonged exposure during their formative years in school.
ILEIID 2025 | International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)
ISSN: 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS
Special Issue | Volume IX Issue XXII October 2025
Page 440
www.rsisinternational.org
The study also highlights an interesting paradox. Learners believed in the principle of "more practice is better".
In order to reduce and monitor their use of fossilized language, they practiced self-awareness, self-reflection,
and self-monitoring. Respondents acknowledged the importance of self-monitoring which is a critical aspect of
self-regulating to actively track their language use, fostering awareness of persistent errors (Yot‐Domínguez &
García, 2017). Self-regulatory skills such as self-reflection can encourage learners to evaluate their learning
progress critically and identify areas in need of improvement (Li, 2024). Respondents opined that the frequency
of practice can promote fluency, although practice does not guarantee linguistic accuracy. While repetition in
informal language can encourage confidence (Roslan et al., 2021; Yusof et al., 2023), corrective feedback is key
to achieving accuracy and minimising fossilisation (Azman & Razali, 2024; Xu, 2022). Respondents
acknowledged the importance of self-monitoring which is a critical aspect of self-regulating to actively track
their language use, fostering awareness of persistent errors, and this finding is in line findings by Yot‐Domínguez
and García (2017). Being aware of negative transfer from their L1 to L2 that occurs when they speak can deter
fossilization, as supported by previous research (Lizzio & Wilson, 2005). Self-regulatory skills can be instilled
through structured teaching environments that promote self-reflection and self-monitoring (Şeker, 2016).
CONCLUSION
This study explored Malaysian ESL undergraduates' perspectives on fossilisation in their spoken English. The
findings revealed that while learners are aware of their persistent errors, they often perceive them as socially
acceptable norms in informal interactions where rapport and social identity are prioritised over grammatical
accuracy. Fossilisation was perceived to be an outcome of several contributing factors, namely mother tongue
interference, normalisation of linguistic errors, limited vocabulary, poor confidence, and the influence of media
and the environment. Respondents also believed that although the frequent use of informal English can build
confidence, it may not be sufficient to achieve accuracy and could further entrench fossilised errors. To address
fossilization effectively, self-regulation strategies and learner feedback can empower learners to take charge of
their language learning experiences.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
Researchers interested in similar areas may carry out investigations on the integration of technology to provide
learner feedback as a tool to remedy language fossilization. Digital technology allows feedback to be given
immediately and automatically rather than waiting for turns. The use of digital technology in delivering student
feedback can enhance learners' self-efficacy and self-awareness significantly (Khiat & Vogel, 2022). Digital
tools can also enhance collaborative learning environments to help promote self-regulation strategies, such as
collective reflection and goal-setting to share strategies and insights, hence, reducing fossilization.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The researcher extends her sincere gratitude to the supervisor for their diligent contributions and support. Utmost
gratitude is also extended to the university for providing the invaluable resources and support that made this
article possible.
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Special Issue | Volume IX Issue XXII October 2025
Page 441
www.rsisinternational.org
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