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MIC3ST 2025 | International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)
Virtual Conference on Melaka International Social Sciences, Science and Technology 2025
ISSN: 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Special Issue | Volume IX Issue XXIII October 2025
Emotional and Cultural Intelligence as Predictors of Collaborative
Learning: Evidence from Undergraduate Education in Malaysia
Azzahrah Anuar
1
*, Edris Aden
2
, Heng Chin Siong
3
, Mohamad Azhari Abu Bakar
4
1,2
Counselling Programme, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia
3
Human Resource Development Programme, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia
4
Psychology Programme, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.923MIC3ST250019
Received: 12 August 2025; Accepted: 20 August 2025; Published: 24 October 2025
ABSTRACT
Incorporating team-based assessments is widely regarded as essential for preparing students to navigate the
challenges of their future professional careers. While previous studies have examined the role of emotional
intelligence or cultural intelligence in collaborative learning, limited research has simultaneously explored how
these two competencies interact in shaping students’ perceptions of team-based assessments, particularly
within the undergraduate context. This study aims to examine the levels of emotional and cultural intelligence
among undergraduate students, as well as their general attitudes toward courses that incorporate team-based
assessments. A non-experimental, cross-sectional survey design was employed to achieve these objectives. A
total of 223 undergraduate students participated in the study. The Schutte Emotional Intelligence and Cultural
Intelligence instruments were administered for this study. The study further explores the relationship between
emotional and cultural intelligence and students’ attitudes towards team-based assessments. The findings
reveal significant correlations: emotional intelligence accounted for 32.8% and cultural intelligence accounted
for 18.2% of the variance in students' attitudes toward team-based assessments. These results underscore the
importance of emotional and cultural competencies in fostering greater student engagement in team-based
learning environments.
Keywords: Team-based assessment, Emotional intelligence, Cultural intelligence
INTRODUCTION
Emotional intelligence and cultural intelligence are linked to social cognitive factors (Earley & Mosakowski,
2004) and have been selected as key variables due to growing evidence supporting their impact on individual
performance in learning environments with significant peer interaction (Clarke, 2010). Research also
highlights that both emotional intelligence (Emmerling & Boyatzis, 2008) and cultural intelligence (MacNab
& Worthley, 2012) affect cross-cultural interactions, which are integral to team-based learning settings
(Michaelsen & Sweet, 2008). For instance, further analysis of these forms of intelligence in the context of
team-based learning could provide valuable insights into optimal team composition and the essential balance
of these traits within teams.
Team-based learning offers key benefits, including enhanced critical thinking and improved teamwork skills
(Hrynchak & Batty, 2012), which are crucial for modern graduates. Emotional intelligence, a broad concept
involving the management of one's own emotions and those of others (Cherniss & Goleman, 2001), is widely
studied and applied across various fields (Petrides et al., 2004). Although research on the role of emotional
intelligence in team-based learning is mixed, recent findings are promising. Clarke (2010) suggested that
exploring emotional intelligence in team-based learning contexts could be valuable.
Cultural intelligence, a newer concept, focuses on fostering effective interactions among diverse groups (Ang
et al., 2015). Individuals with high cultural intelligence tend to exhibit better adaptability in cross-cultural
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MIC3ST 2025 | International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)
Virtual Conference on Melaka International Social Sciences, Science and Technology 2025
ISSN: 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Special Issue | Volume IX Issue XXIII October 2025
settings (Rose, Ramalu, & Uli, 2010). Although cultural intelligence has not been extensively covered in team-
based learning literature, it is designed to enhance team performance. In the health sciences, cultural
intelligence could further enhance teamwork benefits (Harris, 2017). The presence of culturally intelligent
students aligns with Michaelsen and Sweet’s (2008) assertion that team-based learning experiences can
improve teamwork skills.
The aim of this study is to assess the levels of emotional and cultural intelligence among undergraduate
students and to explore their attitudes toward courses involving team-based assessments. Additionally, the
study examines the relationship between emotional and cultural intelligence and students’ attitudes toward
team-based learning. This research is significant as it provides valuable insights for course instructors into the
role of emotional and social competencies in boosting student engagement in collaborative learning and
assessments contexts.
Interplay Between Emotional and Cultural Intelligence
The team-based learning framework underscores the crucial role of maintaining effective student engagement
across various academic, personal, and social dimensions to ensure high team performance. Cultural
intelligence is highlighted as particularly valuable for enhancing social interactions, especially in cross-cultural
contexts.
Ang, Rockstuhl, and Tan (2015) found that individuals with high cultural intelligence are more likely to trust
people from different cultures. This tendency is further strengthened when others in the intercultural setting
demonstrate high levels of behavioural cultural intelligence. Research shows a strong correlation between
emotional intelligence and cultural intelligence within the realm of social intelligence. It is therefore suggested
that these two concepts be examined together when analysing social dynamics in cross-cultural environments
(Crowne, 2009).
This study aims to identify which aspects of emotional and cultural intelligence should be considered to
address diversity in team-based learning. Clarke (2010) suggested that emotional intelligence is a valuable
attribute to explore in team-based learning contexts. Although cultural intelligence has not been extensively
discussed in team-based learning literature, it is designed to support effective team performance (Harris, 2017).
Despite the emphasis on teamwork skills for students in the social sciences, there has been limited exploration
of the factors influencing students' attitudes towards team-based learning. Additionally, there is a lack of
understanding regarding the factors that shape attitudes toward team-based learning among students applying
to social science programs, such as counselling, psychology, and human resource development, given that
admissions to these programs are managed through the University’s Student Admission unit, a centralized
platform for public university applications in Malaysia.
The inclusion of team-based learning pedagogy is deemed essential for preparing students for future
professional challenges (Sibley & Parmelee, 2008). To address existing gaps in the literature, this study
investigates the significance of emotional and cultural intelligence in understanding undergraduate students'
attitudes toward team-based assessment courses.
Research Design
This study employed a non-experimental, cross-sectional survey design using questionnaires. The participants
were undergraduate students majoring in Counselling, Psychology, Cognitive Science, and Human Resource
Development. To be eligible for the study, participants needed to meet the following criteria: 1) They must be
enrolled in one of the specified programmes – Counselling, Psychology, Cognitive Science, or Human
Resource Development; and 2) They must be taking a course that includes team-based learning assessments. A
total of 223 respondents participated in this preliminary study.
The independent variables for this study were:
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Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence was measured using a 33-item Schutte emotional intelligence instrument (Jonker &
Vosloo, 2009), with responses rated on a five-point Likert scale from (1) “strongly disagree” to (5) “strongly
agree” (Nemoto & Beglar, 2014). The Schutte Emotional Intelligence instrument is a valuable tool for
assessing emotional intelligence across various contexts which include emotional perception, understanding,
regulation, and utilization. The instrument is frequently used in academic studies to explore the relationships
between emotional intelligence and various psychological constructs, such as stress management, leadership
effectiveness, and interpersonal relationships.
Higher scores on this scale indicate greater emotional intelligence. The scale is structured to encompass
various aspects of emotional intelligence, such as self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and
social skills. Each item is designed to capture behaviours or attitudes linked to these areas. For instance, some
items may evaluate a person's ability to identify their own emotions or their aptitude for empathizing with
others.
The criterion validity coefficient of the Schutte Emotional Intelligence Test was determined as 0.87 (Tatar et
al., 2017). The internal consistency of the instrument showed Cronbach’s alpha of 0.86 (Musa et al., 2022) and
it has demonstrated good internal consistency, with coefficient alpha values typically reported in the range of
0.85 to 0.90.
Cultural Intelligence
Cultural intelligence, defined as the capability to adapt successfully to new cultural contexts, was assessed
using the Cultural Intelligence Scale. Cultural intelligence instrument is a tool designed to measure an
individual's ability to function effectively in culturally diverse settings. This instrument assesses various
components of cultural intelligence, which include cognitive, emotional/motivational, and behavioural aspects.
This scale includes 20 items which is divided into four subscales: Metacognitive Cultural Intelligence,
Cognitive Cultural Intelligence, Motivational Cultural Intelligence, and Behavioural Cultural Intelligence.
Responses were recorded on a 5-point Likert scale from (1) “strongly disagree” to (5) “strongly agree”.
Metacognitive intelligence is the ability to make sense of culturally diverse experiences (Ang & Van Dyne,
2008). It involves using mental processes to access existing cultural knowledge, plan for intercultural
interactions, challenge cultural assumptions, and adapt mental frameworks when actual experiences differ from
expectations. Cognitive intelligence relates to an individual's understanding of how cultures are alike or
different (Ang & Van Dyne, 2008). This includes knowledge of cultural norms, values, and practices, gained
through both academic learning and personal experiences, as well as an understanding of the rules governing
verbal and non-verbal communication. It also involves self-awareness within a cultural context (Ang & Van
Dyne, 2008).
Motivational intelligence is the mental ability to focus and sustain effort in interacting effectively with people
from different cultural backgrounds (Ang & Van Dyne, 2008). Motivational CQ also encompasses an
individual's confidence to function effectively in culturally diverse settings (Ang et al., 2007). Behavioral
intelligence reflects the ability to exhibit contextually appropriate behaviors that meet situational and relational
norms when engaging with people from different cultures (Ang & Van Dyne, 2008). This involves the use of
verbal and non-verbal socio-linguistic cues, such as selecting the right words, tone, gestures, and facial
expressions, all based on the cultural values of both the speaker and listener within a specific situation (Ward
et al., 2001). Schutte et al. (2001) reported a reliability rating of 0.90 for their emotional intelligence (EI) scale,
indicating strong overall reliability for both adults and adolescents.
Demographic Variables
Demographic variables such as Programme of Study, Year of Study, Gender, Ethnicity, Religion, and Place of
Residence were collected through a Demographic Questionnaire.
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The dependent variables were the attitudes towards team-based assessment, measured using the Minnesota
Satisfaction Questionnaire. This questionnaire comprised 19 statements with responses on a Likert scale from
(1) “Strongly Disagree” to (5) “Strongly Agree.” The statements were categorized into five areas: Overall
Satisfaction with Team Experience, Team Impact on Quality of Learning, Satisfaction with Peer Evaluation,
Team Impact on Clinical Reasoning Ability, and Professional Development. Higher scores reflected a greater
perceived value of working in group settings or with peers. The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire yielded
good coefficient alpha values ranging from .85 to .91 (Martins & Proença, 2012).
RESULTS
The demographic characteristics of the participants are detailed in Table 1. The study included a total sample
of 223 students, the majority of whom were female (79.8%, n=178), while male participants comprised 20.2%
(n=45). The sample exhibited considerable ethnic diversity. The largest ethnic group was Malay, accounting
for 33.6% (n=75), followed by Iban 20.2% (n=45), and Chinese 13.5% (n=30). Bidayuh and Melanau
participants constituted 9.0% (n=20) and 4.9% (n=11), respectively. Indian participants made up 2.7% (n=6) of
the sample.
Dusun participants accounted for 2.2% (n=5), followed by Kedayan at 1.8% (n=4). Bugis, Kadazan-Dusun,
Kenyah and Sama-Bajau each constituted 1.3% (n=3) of the sample, while Idahan and Orang Sungai each
constituted 0.9% (n=2) of the sample. Bisaya, Brunei, Iranun, Javanese, Kayan, Rungus and Siamese were
each represented by 0.4% (n=1) of the sample.
In terms of religion, majority of participants were Muslim (50.7%, n=113), followed by Christians (39.9%,
n=89), Buddhists (6.3%, n=14), and Hindus (2.7%, n=6). Most participants were first-year students (46.2%,
n=103), followed by second-year students (26.9%, n=60), third-year students (23.3%, n=52), and fourth-year
students (3.6%, n=8).
Regarding residence, a substantial portion of participants lived in on-campus hostels (69.1%, n=154). The
remaining participants lived at home with a parent or guardian (14.3%, n=32), in shared private housing
(13.0%, n=29), or in non-shared private housing (3.6%, n=8).
Table I Demographic Characteristics of Participants
Characteristics
n (%)
Gender
Male
45 (20.2)
Female
178 (79.8)
Ethnicity
Bidayuh
20 (9.0)
Bisaya
1 (0.4)
Brunei
1 (0.4)
Bugis
3 (1.3)
Chinese
30 (13.5)
Dusun
5 (2.2)
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Iban
45 (20.2)
Idahan
2 (0.9)
Indian
6 (2.7)
Iranun
1 (0.4)
Javanese
1 (0.4)
Kadazan-Dusun
3 (1.3)
Kayan
1 (0.4)
Kedayan
4 (1.8)
Kelabit
1 (0.4)
Kenyah
3 (1.3)
Malay
75 (33.6)
Melanau
11 (4.9)
Orang Sungai
2 (0.9)
Rungus
1 (0.4)
Sama-Bajau
3 (1.3)
Siamese
1 (0.4)
Other
3 (1.3)
Religion
Islam
113 (50.7)
Christianity
89 (39.9)
Buddhism
14 (6.3)
Hinduism
6 (2.7)
Others
1 (0.4)
Year of Study
1
st
Year
103 (46.2)
2
nd
Year
60 (26.9)
3
rd
Year
52 (23.3)
4
th
Year
8 (3.6)
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Programme of Study
Psychology
70 (31.4)
Counselling
52 (23.3)
Human Resource Development
36 (16.1)
Cognitive Science
65 (29.1)
Place of Residence
On-campus hostel
154 (69.1)
Home with parent/guardian
32 (15.8)
Private housing (individual)
8 (3.6)
Private housing (share)
29 (13.0)
In general, the mean score of the emotional intelligence was 124.54 (M=124.54, SD=16.28) and the mean
score of the cultural intelligence was 62.26 (M=62.26, SD=9.59) as presented in Table 2. The total score for
emotional intelligence ranged from 5-165 and the total score for cultural intelligence ranged from 4-80.
Therefore, these results signify that the respondents have a moderate level of both emotional and cultural
intelligence. The mean score of 73.12 signifies a favourable attitude toward team-based assessment among the
respondents.
Table II Means and Standard Deviations of Emotional Intelligence, Cultural Intelligence, and Attitudes
Toward Team-Based Assessment Scores of the Study Participants
Variables
M
SD
Emotional Intelligence
124.54
16.28
Cultural Intelligence
62.26
9.59
Attitudes toward Team-Based Assessment
73.12
12.46
There were four subscales in the Cultural Intelligence instrument: metacognitive, cognitive, motivational, and
behavioural. The highest mean score was found on the motivational scale (M=19.50) followed by the cognitive
scale (M=18.32). The mean of the behavioural scale was intermediate (M=16.66) and the lowest mean was on
the metacognitive scale (M=13.84). It can be inferred that the respondents are drawn to intercultural
experience and have some foundational level of cultural knowledge. However, with the lowest mean score in
the metacognitive dimension (see Table 3) may indicate a relative weakness in the participants’ capacity for
evaluation of intercultural experiences.
Table III Means and Standard Deviations of Sub-Scales of Cultural Intelligence of the Study Participants
M
SD
13.84
2.06
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18.32
4.05
19.50
3.62
16.66
2.77
In terms of cultural intelligence (see Table 4), female students (M=62.39, SD=9.51) reported to have slightly
higher scores than male students (M=61.72, SD=9.95). Christian students (M=64.01, SD=9.34) and Muslim
students (M= 61.34, SD=9.40) had higher scores than students from other religions. Among the ethnic groups,
Iban students had the highest mean score (M= 65.97, SD=8.79) in terms of cultural intelligence, followed by
Dusun (M= 64.95, SD=9.48), Bidayuh (M= 63.67, SD=8.31), and Malay (M= 61.174, SD=9.77) students.
Chinese students had a mean score of 59.36 and followed by other ethnic groups including Melanau and Indian
students (see Table 4).
Table IV Means and Standard Deviations of Cultural Intelligence Scores by Gender, Religion, and Ethnicity
Variables
M
SD
Gender
Male
61.72
9.95
Female
62.39
9.51
Religion
Islam
61.34
9.40
Christianity
64.01
9.34
Buddhism
59.16
10.29
Hinduism
58.51
11.60
Ethnicity
Malay
61.17
9.77
Iban
65.97
8.79
Chinese
59.36
9.39
Bidayuh
63.67
8.31
Melanau
57.52
9.18
Indian
58.51
11.06
Dusun
64.95
9.49
Note: The score for the Cultural Intelligence ranges from 4 – 80.
In terms of cultural intelligence by programme of study (see Table 5), results revealed that Counselling
students (M=63.61, SD=9.04) and Cognitive Science students (M=63.52, SD=8.72) scored higher than Human
Resources Development (M=62.10, SD=10.98) and Psychology (M=60.16, SD=9.81) students.
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Table V Means and Standard Deviations of Cultural Intelligence Scores by Programme of Study
M
SD
60.16
9.81
63.61
9.04
62.10
10.98
63.52
8.72
Results on emotional intelligence (see Table 6) revealed that female students (M=125.07, SD=14.70) had
higher scores than male students (M=122.44, SD=21.49). Muslim students (M=125.89, SD=16.21) scored
higher than Christian students (M=123.66, SD=16.45) and followed by Buddhist (M=119.88, SD=15.98) and
Hindu students (M=119.25, SD=13.65). Dusun students had the highest emotional intelligence score
(M=130.28, SD=12.62) than those from other ethnicities. The second highest emotional intelligence score
reported was Iban (M=126.64, SD=14.93) students, followed by Malay (M=125.35, SD=16.82), Melanau
(M=122.64, SD=20.41), Bidayuh (M=120.84, SD=18.52), Chinese (M=119.86, SD=17.72) and Indian students
(M=119.25, SD=13.65).
Table VI Means and Standard Deviations of Emotional Intelligence Scores by Gender, Religion, and Ethnicity
M
SD
122.44
21.49
125.07
14.70
125.89
16.21
123.66
16.45
119.88
15.98
119.25
13.65
125.35
16.82
126.64
14.93
119.86
17.72
120.84
18.52
122.64
20.41
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119.25
13.65
130.28
12.62
Note: The score for the Emotional Intelligence ranges from 5 – 165.
Out of a maximum score of 165, measuring the emotional intelligence level, the highest mean score value was
recorded among Counselling students (M=126.80, SD=15.34) students, followed by Psychology (M=124.11,
SD=16.68), Human Resource Development (M=123.89, SD=18.25), and Cognitive Science (M=123.57,
SD=15.62) students (See Table 7).
Table VII Means and Standard Deviations of Emotional Intelligence Scores by Programme of Study
M
SD
124.11
16.68
126.80
15.34
123.89
18.25
123.57
15.62
When respondents’ level of attitudes toward team-based assessment were measured, out of a maximum score
of 95, female (M=73.41, SD=12.20) had higher scores than male (M=71.97, SD= 13.54) students. Among
religious groups, Christian students reported the highest mean score (M= 73.66, SD=10.56), followed closely
by Muslim students (M=73.01, SD=13.86), with Buddhist (M=70.70, SD=9.64) and Hindu (M=69.87,
SD=17.15) students scoring slightly lower.
The scores indicated that Dusun students (M=79.03, SD=10.06) had the most favourable attitudes toward
team-based assessment whereas Iban (M=74.91, SD=9.21), and Bidayuh (M=74.42, SD=10.87) students had
slightly lower scores in terms of their attitudes toward team-based assessment. Malay (M=72.74, SD=13.40)
and Melanau (M=72.48, SD=16.49) students were generally fair while Indian students reported a slightly
lower mean score of 69.87 (SD=17.15). Chinese students (M=68.43, SD=12.05) showed the least favourable
attitudes toward team-based assessment (see Table 8).
Table VIII Means and Standard Deviations of Attitudes Toward Team-Based Assessment Scores by Gender,
Religion, and Ethnicity
M
SD
71.97
13.54
73.41
12.20
73.01
13.86
73.66
10.56
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70.70
9.64
69.87
17.15
72.74
13.40
74.91
9.21
68.43
12.05
74.42
10.87
72.48
16.49
69.87
17.15
79.03
10.06
Note: *The score for the Team-Based Assessment ranges from 5 – 95.
Human Resource Development (M=75.28, SD=12.83) and Counselling (M=75.17, SD=10.93) students had the
most favourable attitudes toward team-based assessment, followed by students from Psychology (M=72.12,
SD=12.15) and Cognitive Science (M=71.35, SD=13.58) programmes (See Table 9).
Table IX Means and Standard Deviations of Attitudes Toward Team-Based Assessment Scores by Programme
of Study
M
SD
72.12
12.15
75.17
10.93
75.28
12.83
71.35
13.58
Table 10 shows the relationship between cultural intelligence and team-based assessment among the
participants. The table reveals a moderate, statistically significant positive correlation between cultural
intelligence and team-based assessment, with a significance level of 1% and a moderate effect size of 0.43.
This suggests that higher levels of cultural intelligence are associated with more positive attitudes towards
team-based assessment.
Table X Correlation between Cultural Intelligence and Team-based Assessment
Variables
N
Pearson’s R
Sig
Cultural Intelligence and Team-based Assessment
223
.427**
< .001
Note: **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
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Table 11 displays the correlation between emotional intelligence and team-based assessment among the
participants. The table shows a moderate, statistically significant positive correlation between emotional
intelligence and team-based assessment, with a significance level of 1% and a moderate effect size of 0.58.
This suggests that students with higher emotional intelligence are likely to have more positive attitudes
towards team-based assessment.
Table XI Correlation between Emotional Intelligence and Team-Based Assessment
Variables
N
Pearson’s R
Sig
Emotional Intelligence and Team-based Assessment
223
.573**
< .001
Note: **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 12 shows the relationship between emotional and cultural intelligence among the participants. The table
reveals a moderate, statistically significant positive correlation between emotional and cultural intelligence,
with a significance level of 1% and a moderate effect size of 0.55. This suggests that higher levels of emotional
intelligence are associated with higher levels of cultural intelligence among the undergraduate students.
Research by Tadmor et al. (2012) demonstrated that individuals with high emotional intelligence are better at
forming and maintaining relationships across cultural boundaries. Their study showed that emotional
intelligence contributes to deeper understanding and empathy, which are essential for intercultural
communication.
Table XII Correlation between Emotional Intelligence and Cultural Intelligence
Variables
N
Pearson’s R
Sig
Emotional Intelligence and Cultural Intelligence
223
.551**
< .001
Note: **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 13 indicates that emotional intelligence explains 32.8% of the variance in students' attitudes towards
team-based assessment (F(1,221) = 108.014, p < .001). This result signifies a statistically significant model,
underscoring the considerable impact of emotional intelligence on students' attitudes towards team-based
assessment. A meta-analysis by O'Boyle et al. (2011) demonstrated that emotional intelligence is significantly
associated with team performance. Teams with emotionally intelligent members show improved conflict
resolution, communication, and cooperation.
Table XIII Regression Analysis for Predicting the Students’ Attitudes Towards Team-Based Assessment
Based on Their Emotional Intelligence
Variable
B
SE B
β
t
P
Emotional Intelligence
.439
.042
.573
10.393
< .001**
Note: **p ≤ .001
Table 14 shows that cultural intelligence accounts for 18.2% of the variance in students' attitudes towards
team-based assessment (F(1, 221) = 49.196, p < .001). This indicates that cultural intelligence is a significant
predictor of these attitudes. This finding highlights the importance of cultural intelligence as a key determinant
of students' attitudes towards team-based assessment. Research by Ang et al. (2007) found that individuals
with high cultural intelligence are more effective in multicultural teams. Their study also indicated that cultural
intelligence positively correlates with team performance, particularly in diverse environments.
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Table XIV Regression Analysis for Predicting the Students’ Attitudes Towards Team-Based Assessment
Based on Their Cultural Intelligence
Variable
B
SE B
β
t
P
Cultural Intelligence
.555
.079
.427
7.014
< .001**
Note: **p ≤ .001
The results of this study align with previous research on the relationships between emotional intelligence,
cultural intelligence, and the value students place on group work (Harris, 2017). Emotional intelligence has
been consistently identified as a significant predictor of team performance (Jamshed & Majeed, 2019).
Additionally, the findings support existing literature on cultural intelligence, which emphasizes its crucial role
in enhancing individual and group performance in cross-cultural interactions (Earley & Ang, 2003). These
insights suggest that understanding emotional and cultural intelligence can effectively contribute to preparing
students for successful performance in team-based learning and assessments.
DISCUSSION
The interplay between emotional intelligence and cultural intelligence is theorized to significantly influence
collaborative learning outcomes within team-based contexts. Drawing on social interaction and intercultural
competence frameworks, both forms of intelligence contribute uniquely yet complementarily to students’
capacity to manage emotions, adapt to cultural diversity, and build effective interpersonal relationships.
Emotional intelligence facilitates empathy, regulation of emotions, and conflict resolution, while cultural
intelligence enables perspective-taking, adaptation, and respectful engagement across diverse cultural norms.
Together, these competencies are hypothesized to strengthen students’ attitudes toward team-based learning by
enhancing communication, reducing misunderstandings, and promoting inclusive collaboration. This
conceptual synthesis provides a foundation for examining the joint impact of emotional and cultural
intelligence on collaborative learning processes.
Emotional intelligence plays a crucial role in collaborative learning environments by allowing individuals to
recognize, understand, and manage both their own emotions and those of others. According to Järvenoja et al.
(2013), effective emotion regulation in challenging social learning situations can enhance group dynamics and
lead to improved learning outcomes. Their research emphasized the significance of adaptive emotional
regulation strategies, which enabled groups to address conflicts and maintained a positive learning atmosphere.
Building on this, Järvenoja et al. (2020) introduce the concept of socially shared regulation of learning, which
highlights the collaborative nature of emotional regulation among group members. When applied by
undergraduate students, this collective approach may foster the management of emotional states, thereby
resulting in heightened motivation and engagement during team-based learning activities.
Cultural intelligence complements emotional intelligence by equipping students with the skills necessary to
interact effectively across cultural boundaries. Khani et al. (2011) found a positive relationship between
cultural intelligence and group effectiveness, indicating that individuals with higher cultural intelligence are
better at adapting to diverse cultural contexts, which is crucial in collaborative learning scenarios. The findings
of the current study were aligned in this context. This adaptability is particularly relevant when students come
from varied cultural backgrounds, as it fosters an inclusive environment conducive to learning. Baratipour et
al. (2022) also support this notion, demonstrating that cultural intelligence can enhance communication skills
and social interactions, thereby reducing stress and improving task performance in multicultural settings.
Moreover, the relationship between emotional and cultural intelligence plays a critical role in shaping
collaborative learning experiences for the students. Wang et al. (2020) illustrate that emotional intelligence can
moderate the relationship between cultural intelligence and increase adaptation, suggesting that individuals
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who are emotionally intelligent are better equipped to leverage their cultural intelligence in diverse settings.
This interplay is vital for fostering an environment where collaborative learning can thrive, as emotionally
intelligent students can navigate cultural differences more effectively, leading to enhanced group performance.
The integration of emotional and cultural intelligence also plays a role in the development of social skills
necessary for successful collaboration. Gokalp (2021) highlights that cognitive and motivational aspects of
cultural intelligence significantly predict social communication skills, which are essential for effective
collaboration. This finding was aligned with the current study in terms of cognitive aspect the cultural
intelligence among the undergraduate students. This is particularly essential skill as the work of Törmänen et
al. (Törmänen et al., 2021), who explore the affective states of groups during collaborative learning, suggesting
that understanding and managing emotions at the group level can enhance the overall learning experience.
In team-based learning settings, individuals often work in diverse groups, requiring high levels of both
emotional and cultural intelligence to navigate differences and build a cohesive learning environment
(Michaelsen et al., 2004). Based on the results of the study, researchers obtained some insights on certain
populations coming from different religious and ethnic backgrounds, particularly in the areas of
communication and team dynamics. In terms of communication, emotional intelligence enables students to
articulate their thoughts clearly and manage their emotional reactions, while cultural intelligence helps them to
communicate in a culturally sensitive and respectful manner. In terms of team dynamics, both emotional and
cultural intelligence contribute to better understanding and trust within teams, fostering an environment where
all students can contribute and learn from one another.
In this study, females scored higher in the emotional intelligence realm than male students. Previous studies
have suggested that women often scored higher on certain dimensions of emotional intelligence, such as
empathy and emotional awareness, while men might excel in self-regulation and problem-solving (Joseph &
Newman, 2010). These complementary strengths, when leveraged properly, can enhance teamwork in team-
based learning environments. Emotional intelligence helps both genders communicate effectively and
understand each other’s emotional expressions, reducing gender-based communication barriers.
The current study findings revealed that cultural norms surrounding emotional expressiveness vary across
racial groups. Students from different racial backgrounds may exhibit diverse comfort levels in showing
emotions or may interpret emotional expressions differently. Cultural intelligence helps individuals interact
effectively with people from different racial backgrounds (Ang & Van Dyne, 2008). In team-based learning
contexts, students with higher cultural intelligence may be better equipped to communicate across racial lines.
A study by Liu et al. (2016) showed that students with higher levels of both cultural intelligence and emotional
intelligence reported greater satisfaction and engagement in team-based learning. These students felt more
comfortable contributing ideas and participating in discussions, regardless of their racial backgrounds.
Different religious beliefs have varying norms around emotional expression. This may explain the observed
variation in emotional and cultural intelligence levels among undergraduate students in the study. For example,
while some religious traditions emphasize emotional restraint, others encourage more outward displays of
emotion. Understanding these differences requires emotional intelligence to interpret emotional cues and
cultural intelligence to appreciate the religious context behind them. Research by Ayman et al. (2014) explored
how religious diversity affects team dynamics. Their findings suggest that understanding and respecting
religious differences can enhance team cohesion and performance.
In team-based learning, members rely on collaboration to solve problems or complete tasks. In diverse teams –
across race, gender, and religion – emotional and cultural intelligence play vital roles in fostering an inclusive
and effective learning environment. In summary, both emotional and cultural intelligence are pivotal in
facilitating effective collaborative learning. Emotional intelligence aids in managing interpersonal dynamics
and fostering a supportive learning environment, while cultural intelligence enhances adaptability and
communication across diverse cultural contexts. Together, these forms of intelligence create a robust
framework for improving group performance in collaborative learning settings.
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A study by Kuhlmann et al. (2021) investigated how students from different academic disciplines (e.g.,
business, engineering, and humanities) exhibit varying levels of emotional intelligence and cultural
intelligence. They found that students in humanities fields tended to have higher emotional intelligence, while
those in business fields often had higher cultural intelligence. In the current study, counselling students
generally had higher score in emotional and cultural intelligence, as well as their attitudes toward team-based
assessment, compared to students from the Psychology, Cognitive Science, and Human Resource
Development programmes. Understanding these differences can help educators tailor team-based learning
experiences to capitalize on the strengths of students from various disciplines, enhancing collaboration and
learning.
The implications of these findings suggest that through the interplay between emotional and cultural
intelligence in students can lead to significantly enhanced collaboration in team-based assessments. Students
who cultivate both emotional and cultural intelligence are more likely to collaborate effectively with peers,
leading to improved problem-solving and creativity. When students feel culturally and emotionally supported,
their engagement levels rise, resulting in a more productive learning experience. Lastly, cultural intelligence
encourages the students to have diverse viewpoints, while emotional intelligence helps manage the emotional
dynamics of those interactions – ultimately enriching the overall learning process particularly in team-based
learning.
Some of the practical significances derived from the study are as follows:
1. Curriculum Design – Universities can design courses that explicitly integrate emotional intelligence
development (e.g., communication skills, empathy-building, and emotional regulation) to improve
students’ engagement and acceptance of team-based assessments.
2. Teamwork Readiness – Since higher emotional intelligence is linked to better attitudes toward
collaboration, educators can use EI-focused interventions (training, coaching, reflective exercises) as a
preparatory tool to ensure students are more receptive to group projects.
3. Assessment Acceptance – Students with greater emotional intelligence are less likely to resist or
disengage from team-based assessments, suggesting that enhancing EI may reduce common challenges
in group work, such as conflict or unequal participation.
4. Employability Skills – The correlation highlights that emotional intelligence not only benefits academic
teamwork but also mirrors workplace demands. Embedding EI development into education can
therefore serve a dual purpose: improving learning outcomes while preparing students for professional
collaboration.
5. Faculty Practice – Instructors can adopt pedagogical approaches that recognize and foster EI (e.g.,
structured peer feedback, reflective journaling, conflict resolution training) to enhance students’ overall
experience and learning outcomes in team-based assessments.
CONCLUSION
The current study offers valuable insights into how emotional and social competence skills influence students’
attitudes towards team-based learning. It demonstrates that incorporating and leveraging emotional and cultural
intelligence in team-based learning and assessment can significantly enhance the effectiveness and outcomes
of these educational approaches.
One key recommendation for enhancing emotional and cultural intelligence is offering structured training and
workshops to undergraduate students. Higher education institutions can design training modules that explicitly
focus on emotional intelligence skills such as self-awareness, empathy, and conflict management, as well as
cultural awareness skills such as perspective-taking and adaptability. Embedding these modules into university
curricula—whether as stand-alone courses, integrated into general education, or embedded within discipline-
specific programs—can better prepare students for collaborative learning and teamwork.
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Beyond formal training, universities can also establish mentorship and peer-coaching programs where students
learn to model emotionally intelligent behaviors and intercultural sensitivity from peers or faculty mentors.
Reflection-based activities, such as journaling about emotional responses and cultural assumptions during
teamwork, can deepen students’ metacognitive awareness of how these factors influence group dynamics.
Interactive strategies such as role-playing exercises, intercultural simulations, and case studies can further
create safe spaces for students to practice managing emotions and navigating diverse cultural perspectives.
Pairing these with debriefing discussions helps translate practice into applicable skills.
Institutions should also create inclusive learning environments by adopting policies and classroom practices
that celebrate diversity, encourage open dialogue, and provide equitable opportunities for participation in
group projects. Faculty development is equally important: training instructors to recognize and support the
development of emotional and cultural intelligence in their students ensures these competencies are
consistently reinforced across courses.
At a broader level, embedding opportunities for students to engage in community-based projects, service
learning, or international collaborations can provide authentic contexts for practicing emotional and cultural
competencies. Such real-world applications not only prepare students for professional teamwork but also
cultivate resilience, adaptability, and leadership in diverse environments.
Ultimately, emotional intelligence and cultural intelligence are crucial in team-based learning environments,
given the diversity in terms of race, gender, and religion among students. By intentionally cultivating these
competencies through curriculum design, experiential learning, and supportive institutional practices,
universities can significantly enhance team-based learning experiences and better prepare undergraduates for
the demands of professional collaboration.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This research work is supported by UNIMAS Scholarship of Teaching and Learning Research Grant
UNI/F04/SoTL-RG/85727/2023.
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