This study investigates the semantic expansion of primary colour adjectives merah (red), biru (blue), and

kuning (yellow) within classical Malay texts using a cognitive semantic framework grounded in Prototype

Theory. Drawing on 443 tokens extracted from the Malay Concordance Project (MCP) corpus, the research

reveals that these adjectives function not merely as descriptive terms but as culturally embedded conceptual

The polysemous nature of primary colour adjectives: merah (red), biru (blue), and kuning (yellow) in classical

Malay texts illustrates the fluidity of lexical meaning shaped by cultural, cognitive, and contextual factors.

These adjectives, while originally used to describe physical attributes, evolve into symbolic expressions of

emotion, status, and ideology. For instance, merah may signify courage, anger, or danger; biru can evoke

tranquility, loyalty, or social hierarchy; and kuning may oscillate between royal authority and illness. The

Malay Concordance Project (MCP) corpus captures this semantic richness, revealing how classical Malay

discourse reflects the dynamic interplay between linguistic form and cultural cognition (Kho Thong Eng,

Lakoff (1987) emphasizes that prototypes function as default conceptual structures, enabling meaning to be

mapped through culturally shared experiences (Nor Hashimah Jalaluddin & Rozaimah Rashidin, 2008).

This phenomenon of colour polysemy is not unique to Malay tradition but reflects a broader cross-cultural

pattern. In Chinese culture, red symbolizes prosperity and celebration, while in Western contexts it connotes

love, danger, or aggression (Berlin & Kay, 1991). Blue may represent sadness in European traditions but purity

and harmony in Japanese society (Wierzbicka, 2008). Similarly, yellow is revered in Indian culture as a sacred

colour linked to fertility and divinity, contrasting with its Malay associations with royalty or illness. These

cultural divergences affirm that while sensory perception may be universal, semantic interpretation is culturally

contingent and historically situated.

Despite the theoretical depth of Prototype Theory, its empirical application within the MCP corpus remains

Accordingly, this study advances a cognitive semantic analysis of colour polysemy in classical Malay texts,

aiming to uncover the mechanisms of semantic expansion and examine how linguistic symbolism shapes

cultural identity and worldview. The research objectives are twofold: (1) to investigate the semantic variation

of primary colour adjectives in the MCP corpus through prototype mapping and cultural domain analysis; and

(2) to explore how literal and connotative meanings evolve and influence textual interpretation. By applying

Prototype Theory within a corpus-based paradigm, this study contributes to the advancement of Malay

cognitive semantics and offers a nuanced framework for interpreting symbolic language in classical literature.

Yop Othman et al. (2022) examined polysemy in spontaneous speech among young Malay speakers using

essential for communicative clarity and interpretive precision in both spoken and literary domains.

Collectively, these studies demonstrate that polysemy is not a formalistic linguistic issue but a cognitive and

social phenomenon that reflects how language functions across diverse communicative domains. Semantic

expansion is shaped not only by linguistic factors but also by cultural experience, social context, and human

interaction. Therefore, polysemy research must be situated within a broader cognitive semantic framework to

elucidate the complex interplay between linguistic form, meaning, and cultural experience.

Nurizzati Ismail (2014) explored how colours like yellow, red, and blue function as symbolic tools in Sulalat

al-Salatin, encoding social status, political authority, and emotional depth. Yellow signifies royalty and dignity,

while red conveys bravery and lineage. The study positions colour as a semiotic system that reinforces cultural

Critically, these studies offer complementary perspectives on colour symbolism. Nurizzati Ismail (2014)

foregrounds the socio-political and hierarchical dimensions of colour, framing it as a symbolic instrument that

structures social relations in classical Malay society. In contrast, the 2025 Learning Guide focuses on

emotional and narrative dimensions, illustrating how colour drives internal conflict and moral messaging. This

comparison affirms that colour symbolism cannot be interpreted monolithically; it must be analyzed through

multiple lenses—political, social, emotional, and cultural. Colour in classical texts thus emerges as a complex

polysemous phenomenon, reflecting not only literary aesthetics but also embedded systems of thought,

ideology, and cultural values.

Nor Hashimah Jalaluddin et al. (2021) applied Prototype Theory to the word alim in the DBP corpus, revealing

its expansion from religious scholarship to broader social meanings. The study demonstrates that semantic

evolution is cognitively and culturally motivated, with core meanings extending into peripheral domains

through shared experience and discourse.

Ain Nadhirah Mohd Shah and Rozaimah Rashidin (2021) extended this framework to tabloid media, analyzing

corpora and analytical scopes, both studies affirm that meaning is fluid and contextually shaped through

linguistic experience and social interaction. Prototype Theory emerges as a significant cognitive semantic

approach for understanding polysemy and meaning dynamics in contemporary Malay language.

paradigm, Prototype Theory provides the analytical foundation, emphasizing that lexical items exhibit graded

category structures with central and peripheral meanings that evolve through conceptual extensions influenced

by historical, social, and symbolic contexts. This framework enables the identification of semantic domains

such as emotion, social status, and cultural values, allowing for a nuanced interpretation of how classical

Malay language encodes symbolic meaning.

Data were sourced from the Malay Concordance Project (MCP), a comprehensive digital corpus encompassing

classical Malay prose and poetry. A total of 443 tokens of the target adjectives were identified across diverse

genres, including hikayat, historical chronicles, pantun, syair, and gurindam. The sampling strategy adopts a

corpus-driven lexical approach, ensuring authenticity and contextual validity by reflecting natural usage

The data analysis combined quantitative description, corpus linguistic techniques, and cognitive semantic

interpretation. Each token was analyzed for frequency, syntactic environment, and semantic domain affiliation.

Prototype mapping distinguished core meanings from peripheral extensions, allowing structured interpretation

of semantic variation. Validity was ensured through content validation confirming contextual accuracy, while

reliability was strengthened through triangulation across analytical layers. Collectively, these procedures

secure methodological robustness and coherence with the cognitive semantic framework.

Polysemy of Primary Colour Adjectives

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Prototype Theory

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Literal Domain Cognitive Domain

The findings indicate that primary colour adjectives such as merah (red), biru (blue), and kuning (yellow)

within the Malay Concordance Project (MCP) corpus exhibit a wide range of literal, connotative, and symbolic

meanings, contingent upon the contextual framing of each sentence. The analysis was conducted on 443 tokens

extracted from classical Malay prose and traditional poetry.

Table 1 presents excerpts from classical Malay narratives where merah is used in its literal sense, referring to

physical colour, character names, and geographical locations. Texts such as Hikayat Hang Tuah, Hikayat

includes metaphorical expressions such as “merah padam mukanya seperti bunga raya” (INata 93:8), where the

framing. The adjective merah thus emerges not merely as a colour term, but as a dynamic linguistic construct

that bridges physical reality, emotional expression, and cultural ideology.

drawn from texts such as Hikayat Inderaputera, Hikayat Raja Pasai, and Hikayat Hang Tuah, demonstrate

The connotative function of biru reflects the cognitive semantic principle that language maps human

experience into symbolic form (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980), allowing for nuanced expression of internal states

within literary discourse.

Table 6 highlights the symbolic use of biru in proverbs and cultural idioms, where it signifies noble lineage,

transcends descriptive and emotional functions to become a marker of collective identity and ideological

positioning.