The implementation of gamification and game-based learning (GBL) in online learning has garnered heightened

interest as universities seek innovative methods to enhance student motivation and engagement. By exploring the

use of gamification and game-based learning (GBL) in online learning, this research uses Self-Determination

Theory (SDT) to demonstrate how gamification and Game-Based Learning (GBL) enhance motivation, active

propose a conceptual model grounded in SDT that explains the motivational mechanisms linking gamification,

game-based learning, and online learning outcomes. In conclusion, the paper proposes that gamification and

game-based learning (GBL) can improve the overall quality and efficacy of online learning and act as

effectivecatalysts for cultivating engagement.

The rapid expansion of online learning has presented challenges in sustaining student motivation and

engagement within digital environments in higher education. Conventional online courses often rely heavily on

asynchronous lectures, discussion forums, and assessments, which can lead to passive participation and feelings

of disconnection (Luarn et al., 2023). A lack of motivation is a critical factor contributing to poor learning

environment.

Gamification involves the integration of game elements, such as points, badges, leaderboards, challenges,

narratives, and levels, into existing educational activities in online courses or classrooms to augment motivation

and engagement. This enhances learning by incorporating incentive elements from gaming (Yan & Zhao, 2023;

Marinensi, Botte & Carbonell, 2022). Gamification is readily applicable to existing educational resources,

enhances both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, and facilitates ongoing feedback.

Meanwhile, Game-Based Learning (GBL) uses games as a pedagogical tool, wherein the game is structured

around educational goals, allowing learners to gain knowledge or skills through gameplay. The exercise

constitutes a comprehensive game featuring rules, narratives, and challenges that necessitate problem-solving,

decision-making, and the application of knowledge. Learning occurs through the game experience itself, rather

Determination Theory (SDT), which discusses the importance of competence, autonomy, and relatedness in

maintaining learner engagement (Gupta & Goyal, 2022).

Accordingly, the purpose of this conceptual review is to synthesise existing empirical evidence and propose a

conceptual model grounded in SDT that explains how gamification and game-based learning enhance motivation,

engagement, and learning outcomes in online higher education. In this context, the subsequent section analyses

pertinent existing literature to elucidate the impacts of gamification and game-based learning in online education.

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) serves as a foundational framework for explaining how gamification and

game-based learning (GBL) can enhance motivation and engagement in higher education. SDT posits that

Systematic reviews consistently highlight that need-supportive gamification strategies those explicitly addressing

autonomy, competence, and relatedness are most effective in sustaining student engagement and motivation in

higher education contexts (Khaldi et al., 2023; Sailer & Homner, 2020).

In addition to gamification, GBL has shown more consistent effects on academic achievement when grounded in

SDT principles. Serious games and simulations promote exploration, mastery-oriented behavior, and knowledge

retention, with perceived competence and autonomy mediating these benefits (Clark et al., 2016; Vlachopoulos

& Makri, 2017). Nevertheless, challenges such as novelty effects and methodological variability complicate

long-term evaluations of these approaches (Subhash & Cudney, 2018). To address these limitations, scholars

advocate for longitudinal designs and mediation analyses to examine whether satisfaction functions as the

mechanism linking gamification and GBL to enhanced motivation and learning outcomes (Deci et al., 2017).

entertainment, gamification offers instant feedback and reinforcement mechanisms that influence learner

behavior and motivation (Hamari et al., 2014). In educational contexts, it has been shown to enhance both

intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, encourage goal setting, and provide meaningful rewards (Seaborn & Fels,

2015).

Systematic reviews confirm gamification’s ability to improve motivation, engagement, and course completion.

Subhash and Cudney (2021) identified six primary outcomes of gamified interventions, including performance,

engagement, and collaboration. Similarly, Navío-Marco and Solórzano-García (2021) demonstrated that features

theoretical foundations remain underdeveloped; as Seaborn and Fels (2015) observed, many implementations

rely heavily on extrinsic motivators while underutilizing established frameworks such as self-determination

theory. Methodological issues, including small sample sizes, short intervention durations, and heterogeneous

designs, also hinder cross-study comparisons.

Overall, the literature suggests that gamification holds considerable promise for enriching online learning by

enhancing engagement and reducing attrition. However, its long-term effects on learning outcomes remain

inconclusive. The effectiveness of gamification appears to depend on design quality, learner characteristics, and

instruction into an interactive experience that sustains learner interest (Plass et al., 2015). Studies demonstrate

that games stimulate intrinsic motivation by fostering curiosity, autonomy, and a sense of achievement, aligning

with self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000). As a result, learners show greater persistence and

willingness to invest effort in academic tasks compared to conventional approaches (Huang et. Al.,2019).

2. Supporting Cognitive and Skill Development

Beyond engagement, GBL contributes to meaningful cognitive outcomes. Research shows that serious games

and simulations enhance problem-solving, critical thinking, and conceptual understanding by situating

knowledge in interactive, context-rich environments (Annetta, 2010). For instance, digital science games allow

learners to apply theoretical concepts in virtual experiments, improving transferability of knowledge to real-

world settings (Clark et al., 2016). Furthermore, collaborative game play fosters communication and teamwork

access to digital infrastructure and teacher preparedness, also restrict scalability (Eseryel et al., 2014). Moreover,

empirical findings on long-term academic achievement remain mixed, as many studies report improved

engagement but inconsistent impacts on performance outcomes (Zainuddin et al., 2020). These gaps highlight the

need for rigorous, longitudinal, and theory-driven research to establish clearer evidence of GBL’s effectiveness

across disciplines.

This study employs a conceptual review methodology, integrating theoretical viewpoints and actual evidence

from previous studies. This review systematically analysed studies published between 2017 and 2025 across

major academic databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, concentrating on research

regarding gamification, game-based learning, motivation, and engagement in online education. Unlike empirical

objective was to illustrate how gamification and Game-Based Learning (GBL) augment motivation, engagement,

and enhanced learning outcomes among university students.

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) by Deci & Ryan (2000), is developed to understand human motivation. It

gamification and game-based learning to improve online learning. By addressing learners' requirements for

competence, autonomy, and relatedness, both approaches enhance intrinsic motivation and promote more self-

determined varieties of extrinsic motivation. Gamification employs motivating triggers by incorporating game

aspects, whereas Game-Based Learning (GBL) encompasses the entire learning process within a gaming

experience, rendering it intrinsically engaging. Collectively, they provide synergistic opportunities for

effective), autonomy (the sense of choice and control), and relatedness (the sense of connection with others).

When these needs are unmet, students often experience reduced motivation and engagement (Deci & Ryan,

2000). Although students may initially be driven by extrinsic motivation, such as the pursuit of rewards or

recognition, well-designed game-based learning can gradually foster intrinsic motivation, where students engage

in learning for enjoyment and personal interest. This transition enhances both engagement and learning

outcomes, as motivation influences emotional, behavioral, and cognitive dimensions of student participation

(Ryan & Deci, 2017; Fredricks et al., 2004).

experience increased satisfaction, motivation, and persistence, which not only improves performance but also

supports long-term retention and reduces dropout rates. Consequently, gamification and game-based learning

serve as valuable approaches to promoting meaningful learning experiences, enabling students to achieve

https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.749837

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