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Effect of a Comprehensive Learning Environment on Pupils’
Learning Outcomes in Public Primary Schools in Kakamega County,
Kenya
Murunga Caroleen Saya, Achoka Judith, Nganyi Jason.
Masinde Muliro University, Department of Education, P.O. Box P.O Box 190 - 50100, Kakamega.
Kenya
DOI:
https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.903SEDU0603
Received: 16 September 2025; Accepted: 21 September 2025; Published: 06 November 2025
ABSTRACT
The Teachers Service Commission (TSC) in Kenya launched the Performance Contract (PC) policy to
improve teacher performance in the year 2012.
The goal of PC was to enhance the quality of education
offered to learners
through
strengthening supervision and continuously monitoring teacher performance at
the institutional level. Teacher PC is monitored through regular teacher appraisals of their effectiveness,
guided by predetermined PC set targets from
the Teacher Professional and Development (TPAD) tool
. Despite
PC having been in place over last twelve years, its effect on pupil learning outcomes in Kakamega County
Public primary schools is still not clear. The purpose of this study was
to establish the effect of teacher
achievement in the comprehensive learning environment PC target on pupils’ learning outcomes in public
primary schools in Kakamega County in Kenya. The three learning outcomes examined were academic
achievement, pupil retention and pupil completion rates. The comprehensive learning environment aims to
create Child or Learner Friendly Environments. A Correlation research design with a mixed methods approach
was used in the study. Eighty-two (82) schools were selected from 13 Sub Counties of Kakamega County using
a multistage random sampling. Structured questionnaires were used to collect data on target achievement and
learning outcomes from Head teachers and teachers in the selected schools for the period 2018 to 2023. Five
Key informants involved in PC appraisals (2 Curriculum Support Officers, 2 Sub County TSC Directors and the
County TSC Director) were purposefully selected and interviewed. The quantitative data collected was analyzed
using Pearsons’s correlation and Multiple linear regression. The qualitative data was analyzed thematically. The
associations between comprehensive learning target achievement and pupil learning outcomes were KCPE
performance (r=.0.295; P= 0. 0.540); retention rates (r= 0. 630; p=0.180) and completion rates (r=0.326; p=0.
528). These associations were weak and statistically insignificant across all the learning outcomes examined.
The results for the linear regression were also statistically insignificant (P>0.05). The Key informants revealed
that the process of PC appraisal was not taken seriously and had been seen as a routine procedure by teachers.
The main hurdle in achieving the Comprehensive Learning Environment in schools was limited resources. The
study concluded that Teachers’ achievement in the Comprehensive Learning Environment target had no effect
on learning outcomes of pupils in public primary schools in Kakamega County. The study recommends that the
government should provide adequate resources for effective implementation of the Comprehensive Learning
Environment in Public primary schools. There is need for further research to explore the effect of teacher
achievement in Comprehensive Learning Environment on other learning outcomes such as communication
skills, creativity, problem-solving and critical thinking skills.
Keywords: Target achievement, comprehensive learning Environment, Performance contracts, Learning
Outcomes
INTRODUCTION
Background
Performance Contracting (PC) is a component of a broader set of public sector management tools designed to
increase the efficiency and effectiveness of delivering services. PC is a management tool used to measure
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performance against predetermined targets and objectives (Nyongesa and Van der Westhuizen,2023). Once the
targets are set, employees direct their efforts toward achieving the targets (Okech,2017). PC in the teaching
profession, as in other service sectors, was introduced as a strategy to improve teacher performance in the
delivery of quality education. However, there have been conflicting reports on the effectiveness of PC in
improving the quality of education (Camileri,2021; Darling Hammond et al., 2020).
The efficiency of teachers in service delivery has been and is still largely measured through teacher appraisals.
The Teachers Service Commission (TSC) launched Performance Contracting for teachers in Kenya in the year
2012. The concept of PC in the teaching service in Kenya is a new having started a decade ago. Long before PC
was formally introduced in the civil service, teacher appraisals were already in place. Teacher appraisals were
done through inspection where school inspectors would periodically evaluate schools and teachers (Odhiambo,
et al,2023). A confidential report would be sent to the TSC by the head teacher of the school, along with the
teacher's appraisal. Teachers were not given specific PC targets at the time. Although the use of PCs was hailed
as an effective and promising strategy to improve teacher performance, teachers' unions reacted negatively,
preferring the previous methods of teacher supervision (Kagema and Irungu, 2018).
The current PC for teachers was initiated in response to several reports indicating failure of the Ministry of
Education to meet some of the targets outlined in the Kenya Education Sector Support Project- KESSP 2005-
2010 report (GOK, 2012). The KESSP (2005-2010) assessment report revealed several problems affecting the
teaching service, including poor governance, poor learning outcomes, a lack of teacher professionalism, gaps in
service delivery and unacceptable levels of teacher absenteeism (GOK, 2012). PC was then introduced as a
solution to the problems in the service delivery by teachers.
The framework for PC in the teaching service is anchored in Section 11 (c) and (f) of the Teachers Service
Commission Act (2012), which make provisions for monitoring teacher conduct and performance in public
learning institutions (GOK, 2012). Unlike previous school inspections, performance targets and evaluation
standards are established in a participatory and democratic manner between the supervisor and the teacher. In
the year 2016, TSC introduced the ‘Teacher Performance Appraisal and Development (TPAD) tool to evaluate
teacher performance in primary and secondary schools. On the TPAD tool, teachers are evaluated on five set
performance targets of professional knowledge and practice, comprehensive learning environment, professional
development, teacher conduct and professionalism and participation in professional learning community (TSC,
2017). The assumption was that meeting the targets would translate into good teacher performance and,
subsequently, quality education for learners. Although PCs have been used by teachers over the past twelve
years, the impact of PCs on learning outcomes has not been explored. There are still reports of teacher
indiscipline and absenteeism, poor academic performance, learner dropout and learner indiscipline (Table 1 and
Table 2). Such aspects professionalism and teacher conduct) have a major impact on student learning outcomes
and were supposed to have been minimized by PC.
Table1: Learning Outcomes of Kakamega County Public Primary Schools over the Period 2018-2023
Year
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
Mean score (out of 500 Marks)
248
249.6
264
255.7
261.2
Pupil Retention rates (%)
75.2
81.4
83.6
81.4
83.3
Pupil Completion rates (%)
82.6
84.5
81.4
84.6
83.2
Source: Kakamega County Education Office (2023)
Table 2: Number of Primary School Teacher Discipline Cases Reported Over the Period 2018-2023 in
Kakamega County
Discipline Case
Year
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
Desertion of duty
32
30
10
6
26
29
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Absenteeism
15
13
6
-
21
Alcohol abuse
15
18
-
18
18
16
Insubordination
23
18
-
11
12
24
Sexual Molestation of learners
59
64
7
23
46
49
Others
13
9
-
10
-
13
Totals
157
152
23
68
129
152
Source: Kakamega County TSC Unit (2023)
The comprehensive learning environment PC target is evaluated using the criteria of teacher’s ability to create
child friendly school/class environment, ability to ensure safety of learners, and ability to manage learners
conduct and behavior (TSC,2017). The three learning outcomes that were examined include Academic
achievement, pupil school completion rates and pupil retention rates.
Statement of the problem
The education sector in Kenyan is guided by policies aimed at improving learning outcomes. These policies
include the Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC) framework (2017), the National Curriculum Policy
(2019), and the Basic Education Act (2013)
The teachers’ Performance Contract (PC) policy is a
government strategy to enhance education quality and teacher performance. It was launched in 2012
following reports from the Kenya Education Sector Support Project (KESSP). This policy, supported by
the TSC Act (2012) and the Teacher Performance Appraisal and Development (TPAD) tool (2016), aims to
review teaching standards, evaluate performance, and promote professional development., evaluate
performance, and promote professional development. Further plans include the National Education Sector
Strategic Plan (NESSP) (2018-2022), which seeks to improve learning outcomes, access, affordability, and
service delivery, focusing on enhancing teaching quality and teacher management. Despite these efforts,
challenges persist, particularly concerning learning outcomes.
In Kakamega County, pupil learning outcomes have shown stagnation or slight fluctuation in recent years.
For example, the mean Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE) scores in public primary schools
in Kakamega County have remained around 250, reaching 251.27 in 2018 and 250.04 in 2023. Similarly,
pupil retention and completion rates have remained at approximately 88% and 91%, respectively. The
impact of PC on learning outcomes in Kakamega County is unclear, and performance in the education
sector has declined. Teacher Performance Contracts involve evaluating teachers across five areas:
professional knowledge, learning environment, professional development, conduct and professionalism,
and participation in professional learning communities. This study is important as it provides valuable
insights to the TSC by examining the actual effectiveness of PC on pupils' learning outcomes. The study
aimed to identify existing gaps in the comprehensive learning environment target achievement and learning
outcomes.
Research Objective
The objective of this study was to establish the effect of teachers’ achievement in the comprehensive learning
environment PC target on pupils’ learning outcomes in public primary schools in Kakamega County.
Research Question
What is the effect of Teachers’ achievement in the comprehensive learning environment PC target on pupils’
learning outcomes?
LITERATURE REVIEW
Theoretical Review
Performance contracting is an application of various theoretical bodies of knowledge to improve organizational
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performance. As a result, many theories from different disciplines have been advanced to support and explain
the performance contracting paradigm. The study was guided by the New Public Management (NPM) theory.
According to Hood (2012), NPM is a series of themes relating to reforming the public sector's organization and
procedures to make it more competitive and efficient in resource use and service delivery. The NPM is
associated with the various reforms initiated in the public sector to improve accountability and maximize the
use of scarce resources in the provision of public goods and services. There is agreement among scholars who
have studied performance contracting that PC is one of the reforms that have been initiated under NPM, whose
main focus is making the government more efficient by using less to produce more (Mutahaba, 2011).
In the context of the current study, TSC has created a New Public Management movement of PC to make the
teaching service more efficient. Though many theories have been used to explain performance management, the
researcher is convinced that the NPM mentioned above adequately covers the concepts in teacher performance
contracting. Performance contracting practices and innovations are routine activities used by institutions to
achieve set Visions, Missions, objectives, and targets. In the case of this study, teacher achievement of set targets
and students' learning outcomes are all
Empirical Literature review
A Comprehensive learning environment (CLE) is an educational setting that prioritizes the well-being, safety,
and holistic development of children. It involves creating a supportive, inclusive, and engaging atmosphere
where children feel valued, respected, and motivated to learn. Key elements include appropriate physical
infrastructure, child-centered teaching methods, an inclusive curriculum, and policies that protect children's
rights and promote non-discrimination. Such environments nurture cognitive, emotional, social, and physical
growth, encouraging creativity, critical thinking, and life skills development (Cobanoglu et al,2019).
The CLE positively influences learning outcomes by stimulating children's natural curiosity and engagement,
fostering a sense of belonging, and providing conditions conducive to active and cooperative learning. A child-
friendly environment reduces barriers such as fear, discrimination, and disengagement, enhancing students'
psychosocial well-being, motivation, and academic performance (Boruett et al, 2021). Physical attributes like
flexible, well-ventilated spaces and access to supportive learning materials aid concentration and participation.
Pedagogical approaches that promote dialogue, mutual respect, and inclusive teaching increase student
satisfaction and deepen learning experiences. One of the key items to note is that the TSC TPAD tool does not
consider all the aspects describe for a child friendly learning environment. The clear definition of a CLE also
differs across different cultures (Xiao et al, 2023).
The CLE was an initiative by the Basic Education Act (2013) in Kenya to address quality issues in education
(Nthenge,2017). However, a careful examination shows that the Ministry of Education was ill-prepared to
implement child-friendly schools through the Teachers Service Commission. Creating a child-friendly school or
classroom environment is essential for fostering positive learning outcomes among learners, pupils in primary
schools. This process involves the teacher’s ability to plan and implement activities that promote respect, equity,
inclusion, and moral values. Each of these elements plays a critical role in shaping the educational experience
and influencing pupil engagement, motivation, and overall pupil performance. However, like the many other
schools in the developing nations, schools in Kenya, and more so in Kakamega County suffer poor classroom
conditions and lack of learning materials, Institutional challenges including funding delays and high enrollment
and Limited teacher training and community involvement. All these factors are caused by limited resources.
Although there is evidence supporting the link between CLE and pupil learning outcomes elsewhere (Xiao et al,
2023) to be strong, there are several challenges in Kenya, and more so in Kakamega County. The major challenge
is resource constraints, including human resource constraints. Implementing and maintaining CLE requires
significant financial, human, and infrastructural resources. In low-income countries or underfunded schools,
creating such environments may be impractical or unsustainable (Amadi and Nwogu, 2023). In many low-
income or under-resourced schools, creating a child-friendly learning environment is challenging due to a lack
of funding for infrastructure, training, and materials. Already, the situation in Kakamega County, as in many
other counties, is one of teacher shortage leading to understaffing (TSC, 2019).
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Additionally, even within CLEs, disparities can persist. For example, pupils from disadvantaged backgrounds
may still face barriers to accessing resources or support, undermining the inclusivity goals of CLEs
(Duoblienė,2023). This is also true for Kakamega County, where the poverty index is high. Some pupils may
come to school without having had basic commodities like food. This, even with the best comprehensive learning
environment, will affect pupil learning outcomes and is beyond the issue of target achievement by teachers.
Moreover, while CFS aim to support teachers, the demands of creating and managing such environments can
lead to increased workload and burnout, particularly in teacher under-staffed areas like those of Kakamega
County settings (Skaalvik, 2020). But even then, other than high workloads, teachers in many public schools in
Kakamega County may not have the training or resources to implement child-friendly practices effectively,
particularly in diverse or challenging classroom settings. Additionally, what is considered child-friendly may
vary across cultures, and a lack of context-specific understanding may limit the effectiveness of certain practices.
CFS often emphasize flexibility and personalization, which can conflict with standardized testing and rigid
curricula. The society still values performance in National Examinations. This pressure on performance in
standardized examinations such as KCPE may limit their effectiveness in systems that prioritize measurable
outcomes (Hollweck and Lofthouse, 2021). Although efforts to create Child-Friendly Schools (CFS) are
ongoing, the effect of the Child Friendly Schools environment created in Kakamega County on pupil learning
outcomes remains unclear.
METHODOLOGY
The study was carried out in Kakamega County in Western Kenya. Kakamega County has a total of 899 public
primary schools and 10,145 public primary school teachers employed by TSC (Kakamega County TSC Unit,
2019). The study adopted a correlation research design with a mixed methods approach. This design and
approach were preferred because the nature of the study that required both quantitative and qualitative data
sources to appropriately get the results and establish the associations between target achievem ent and
learning outcomes. Using multistage sampling, 82 schools were randomly selected from Kakamega County.
The headteachers of the selected schools were approached and interviewed on achievement in the
professional knowledge and practice PC target and the KCPE mean scores over the last six years (2018-2023).
One teacher from each of the selected schools was also randomly selected and interviewed on the PC process.
Another 4 key informants who included 2 Curriculum Support Officers (CSOs), 2 TSC Sub County Directors
and the Kakamega County TSC Director were also selected purposefully for the study. These Officers are
involved in the implementation of the teacher PC policy through regular appraisals of teachers. Data was
collected using questionnaires and Key informant interview guides. The data Collection tools were pretested in
the neighboring Lugari SuCounty and attained a reliability coefficient of 0.820. Quantitative data collected was
analyzed using descriptive statistics and Bivariate analysis (Pearson correlation) with the aid of the Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) computer software program Version 27. The qualitative data collected was
analyzed thematically using the N-Vivo version 14 computer software. The results of the study are presented in
narratives, tables and figures. This research study was approved by the Department of Education administration
and Planning of Masinde Muliro University and the researcher also obtained a research permit from the National
Commission of Science, Technology and Innovation (NACOSTI).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Sociodemographic factors of the Head teachers
The sociodemographic characteristics of the head teachers are summarized in Table 3
Table 3: Sociodemographic characteristics of Headteachers
Variable
Count
Frequency
Type of school
Day
81
98.8%
Boarding
1
1.2%
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Total
82
100%
Sex of Head teacher
Male
61
74.4%
Female
21
25.6%
Total
82
100%
Age category
30-40 Years
8
9.8%
41-50years
41
50.0%
Above 50 years
33
40.2%
Total
82
100%
Experience as Head teacher
1-5 years
21
25.6%
6-10 years
34
41.5%
11-15 years
21
25.6%
Above 16 years
6
7.3%
Total
82
100%
Category of school
Mixed
81
98.8
Girls
1
1.2
Total
82
100%
Period which school has done
KCPE examination
5-9years
1
1.2%
10-14 years
17
20.7%
15-20 years
63
57.7%
Above 20 years
1
1.2%
Total
82
100%
Understaffing level
3-5 Teachers
54
65.9%
More than 5 teachers
28
34.1%
Total
82
100%
It was observed from Table 4.1 that majority (81) 98.8% of the public primary schools in the study were day
schools. Most (61)74.4% of the head teachers were male. The age of the head teachers ranged from 36 years to
59 years with a mean of 47.84 years and a standard deviation of ±5.821. A majority (61) 74.3% of the head
teachers had more than five years’ experience as head teachers. A majority (81) 98.8% of the public schools
sampled were mixed primary schools (the learners were both boys and girls) with a majority (81) 98.8% of the
schools having done KCPE examinations for a period of over 10 years.
The number of male teaching staff in the schools ranged from 6 to 16 with a mean of 10. The number of female
teaching staff in the schools ranged from 5 to 13 with a mean at 8 female teachers. The total number of TSC
teaching staff per school ranged from 14 to 27 with a mean at 18 teachers per school. Most (54) 65.9% of the
schools were understaffed, lacking up to 5 teachers as per the Curriculum Based Establishment (CBE).
Sociodemographic factors of teachers
The sociodemographic characteristics of the teachers are summarized in Table 4
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Table 4: Sociodemographic characteristics of teachers
Variable
Count
Frequency
Type of school
Day
81
98.8%
Boarding
1
1.2%
Total
82
100%
Sex of the teacher
Male
50
61%
Female
32
39%
Total
82
100%
Age category
30-40 Years
8
9.8%
41-50years
41
50.0%
Above 50 years
33
40.2%
Total
82
100%
Experience as a teacher
1-5 years
6
7.3%
6-10 years
19
23.2%
11-15 years
9
10.9%
Above 16 years
48
58.5%
Total
82
100%
It was observed from Table 4 that most (50) 61% of the teachers were male. The age of the teachers ranged from
28 years to 56 years with a mean of 42.65 years and a standard deviation of ±8.298. The teachers experience
ranged from 4 years to 32 years with a mean of 16 years. More than half (48) 58.5% of the teachers had more
than 16 years of experience in the teaching service.
Sociodemographic characteristics of the Key informants
Five Key informants participated in the study. They included the Kakamega County TSC director, One Sub-
County TSC Director and two Curriculum Support Officers (CSOs). The age range of the Key informants ranged
from 41years to 54 years. All the Key informants had over 6 years’ experience in their duties of teacher
management. They were selected for the study because of their knowledge and experience on the requirements
of teachers PC and also because they are involved in regular teacher PC appraisals. Data from the Key informants
has been triangulated with quantitative data from the headteachers and teachers to arrive at the findings of this
study.
Mean Scores of comprehensive learning environment and learning outcomes (2018-2023)
The mean scores of annual achievements in comprehensive learning environment and, the learning outcomes of
academic achievement, completion rates and retention rates over the six-year period (2018-2023) were first
computed. The results are summarized in the Table 5.
Table 5: Mean scores of comprehensive learning environment PC target, the learning outcomes (2018-
2023)
Mean scores
Year
Comprehensive learning
environment PC target
KCPE
scores
Retention
Rates
Completion
rates
2018
72.78
263.87
75.20
82.60
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2019
73.61
272.62
81.40
84.50
2020
76.78
275.58
83.60
81.40
2021
75.93
281.09
81.40
84.60
2022
74.79
283.83
83.30
83.20
2023
73.59
288.70
82.70
84.10
From Table 5, it was observed that only the variable of KCPE scores among the learning outcomes increased
steadily from 2018 to 2023 while the other learning outcomes kept varying.
Comprehensive learning environment PC target scores achievement effect on learning outcomes
In the Comprehensive Learning Environment target, the lowest annual score was in the year 2018 (65%) while
the year 2020 had the highest score (89%). Further analysis was carried out to establish if the means of the
Comprehensive Learning Environment target achievement scores were significantly different using ANOVA.
The means of scores achieved by teachers in Comprehensive Learning Environment target were significantly
different (F=10.426, p-value <0.001). More than half (53.7%) of the comprehensive learning environment target
scores achieved by teachers were in the category of poor. Moreover, the association between Headteacher age
category and achievement in the comprehensive learning environment target scores is not statistically significant
(P>0.05). The association between Headteacher years of service and achievement in the comprehensive learning
environment target scores is not statistically significant (P>0.05). There was no statistically significant
association between total number of teachers in school and achievement in the PC comprehensive learning
environment target scores. There was no statistically significant association between understaffing and
achievement in the PC comprehensive learning environment target scores. Key informants’ opinion was that it
was difficult to attain an optimum comprehensive learning environment in schools; it was also difficult to
evaluate some aspects of the comprehensive learning environment. The major constraints to achieving high
scores in this target were time, heavy workloads and financial constraints
The study used Pearsons’s correlation to establish the association between the Comprehensive learning
environment PC target scores achievement and academic achievement. The results are summarized in Table 6.
Table 6: Association between Comprehensive learning environment PC target scores achievement and
academic achievement
Comprehensive learning environment PC
KCPE Performance
Pearson Correlation
1
.295
Sig. (2-tailed)
-
.540
N
6
6
There was a weak positive correlation between teachers’ comprehensive learning target achievement and KCPE
performance (r = 0.295), this relationship is not statistically significant (p = 0.540).
Multiple linear regression between Comprehensive Learning environment and KCPE performance was
conducted. The results are as shown in Table 7.
Table 7: Model Summary
Model
R
R Square
Adjusted R Square
Std. Error of the Estimate
1
0.295
0.087
-0.131
7.78
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Table 7 shows that the regression model was not statistically significant, F (1,4) = 0.707, p = .540, and explained
only 8.7% of the variance in KCPE performance (R² = .087; Adjusted R² = -0.131).
The coefficient for CLE target achievement was not significant (β = .295, p = .540). This indicates that while a
positive relationship exists, it is weak and lacks statistical significance, suggesting that other factors outside CLE
target scores may more strongly influence learners' KCPE outcomes.
Comprehensive learning environment PC and pupil retention rates
Table 8: Association between Comprehensive learning environment PC target scores achievement and
pupil retention rates
Comprehensive learning environment PC
Retention rates
Pearson Correlation
1
.630
Sig. (2-tailed)
-
.180
N
6
6
There is a moderate positive relationship between teachers’ comprehensive learning target achievement and pupil
retention rates; however, this relationship lacks statistical significance p= 0.180.
Multiple linear regression between the Comprehensive Learning environment and retention rates was conducted.
The results are as shown in Table 9.
Table 9: Model Summary
Model
R
R Square
Adjusted R Square
Std. Error of the Estimate
1
0.630
0.397
0.247
2.942
From Table 9, it was observed that a moderate positive relationship, with R = .630 and R² = .397, suggesting
that 39.7% of the variability in retention rates could be explained by CLE scores. However, the model was not
statistically significant, F(1,4) = 4.216, p = .180, and the CLE score was not a significant predictor (β = .630, p
= .180). These results imply that while there is a moderate relationship between CLE target achievement and
pupil retention, other factors (such as staffing levels, school resources, or home environment) may play a more
critical role in influencing retention outcomes.
Comprehensive learning environment PC and Pupil Completion rates
The study sought to establish the association between a Comprehensive learning environment and school
completion rates. The results are presented in Table10
Table 10: Comprehensive learning environment PC and Pupil Completion rates
Comprehensive learning environment PC
Completion rates
Pearson Correlation
1
.326
Sig. (2-tailed)
-
.528
N
6
6
There was some degree of association between teachers achieving their comprehensive learning targets and pupil
completion rates; however, it is not strong enough to imply causation. The high p-value (0.528) indicates that
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this observed relationship is not statistically significant
Multiple linear regression between the Comprehensive Learning environment and pupils’ completion rates was
conducted. The results are as shown in Table 11.
Table 11: Model Summary
Model
R
R Square
Adjusted R Square
Std. Error of the Estimate
1
0.326
0.106
-0.110
1.89
The results of Table 11 showed a weak positive association (R = .326, R² = .106), with CLE scores explaining
only 10.6% of the variance in completion rates. The model was not statistically significant, F(1,4) = 0.994, p =
.528, and the CLE target score was not a significant predictor (β = .326, p = .528).
These findings indicate that CLE target achievement alone does not meaningfully predict school completion
rates. The teachers interviewed in the study supported this view.As suggested in the qualitative data, challenges
such as large class sizes, understaffing, and limited capacity to evaluate holistic learner needs may explain this
weak relationship.
The key informants and teachers interviewed in this study explained that it was difficult to attain an optimum
comprehensive learning environment in schools due to many factors. The County Director of TSC had this to
say:
‘Attaining a comprehensive learning environment in the primary schools in Kakamega county is a big challenge
because of understaffing. With the current shortages of teachers, the teachers are overworked and may not fulfil
the different aspects of the comprehensive learning environment. Some aspects like the psychological care of
learners are difficult to attain in such circumstances’- (TSC County Director,2023).
The Curriculum Support Officers and some Head teachers said it was difficult to evaluate some aspects of the
comprehensive learning environment. One Curriculum Support officer said this:
‘It may not be possible to evaluate the holistic approach to learning as aspired by the TPAD tool. Some aspects,
such as pupils' emotional well-being, are missing from the evaluation tool. Some aspects would require that all
teachers be trained to help pupils learn well’ (Curriculum Support Officer, 2023). Head teachers supported this
observation’.
This study sought to establish the effect of Teachers’ achievement in Comprehensive learning environment PC
target on pupils’ learning outcomes. A comprehensive learning environment refers to a holistic approach to
classroom conditions that support the physical, emotional, and intellectual development of students. This
objective sought to establish the association between teachers’ achievement of a comprehensive learning
environment and the subsequent effect on pupil learning outcomes.
From the results of the study, the association between teachers' achievement in Comprehensive Learning
Environment performance contract targets and pupils' learning outcomes, the study found no significant
correlations with key indicators of learning outcomes. The findings indicated a Pearson correlation coefficient
of r=0.295 for KCPE examination performance, r=0.630 for retention rates, and r=0.326 for completion rates,
none of which were statistically significant.
The absence of a significant correlation between teachers' achievements in comprehensive learning environment
targets and pupils' KCPE examination performance suggests that other factors may play a more critical role in
influencing academic achievement. These findings differ from findings of a study by Kamoet and Mbirithi
(2024) in which they found that the learning environment improved the Kenya Certificate of Secondary
Examinations (KCSE) performance in Mombasa County in Kenya. However, Kamoet and Mbirithi study looked
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
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at a small part of the learning environment, the classroom environment. The findings of this study corroborate
with findings from related studies that emphasize the complexity of educational success. For example, research
has shown that while teacher qualifications and training are important, the direct impact on student achievement
can be moderated by classroom dynamics, teaching methods, and student engagement levels.
The correlation of r=0.630 for retention rates, despite being higher than other correlations, still did not reach
significance. This indicates that while there is some relationship, it is not strong enough to assert a definitive
association. Studies have highlighted that pupil retention is influenced by various factors beyond teacher
provision of a comprehensive learning environment, including home environment and school resources
(Wanjiku et al,2024). There is a strong association between a comprehensive learning environment and pupil
retention rates in schools. Elements such as pupil engagement (cognitive, emotional, behavioural), teacher-pupil
relationships, peer interactions, physical classroom design, and support for emotional well-being all contribute
significantly to whether students choose to remain enrolled or drop out. A study by Qvortrup and Lykkegaard
(2022) focusing on the learning environment found that supportive and engaging classroom settings foster
greater student participation and commitment, which are essential for retention and completion rates. Qvortrup
and Lykkegaard (2022) research concluded that effective teaching practices, such as interactive and student-
centered approaches, contribute to higher levels of student engagement and satisfaction. These practices not only
improve academic performance but also encourage students to stay enrolled and to complete their studies.
Besides, the success of teachers in achieving Comprehensive Learning Environment and professional
competency targets also depends on strong school leadership, which may not always be present in the schools
in Kakamega County. Leadership, both at the school and the community is necessary to provide resources to
support the teachers to attain the Comprehensive Learning Environment..
While research suggests a strong link between comprehensive learning environments, and pupil learning
outcomes, there are several challenges that may hinder the attainment of the desired learning outcomes. Teachers
in the current study often face time limitations and insufficient resources to fully implement effective teaching
strategies or create comprehensive learning environment. In the current study, teachers in most primary schools
were handling more than 60 learners in a class. Almost all the teachers had heavy teaching loads of lessons
because of the teacher understaffing in the schools. Even with a Comprehensive Learning Environment, high
levels of workload and lack of support can lead to teacher burnout, negatively affecting teaching quality and,
subsequently, pupil learning outcomes. Heavy workloads do not give room for the teachers to create a supportive,
inclusive, and engaging atmosphere where children feel valued, respected, and motivated to learn in the
Comprehensive Learning Environment because of the burnout effect (Skaalvik and Skaalvik ,2020).
The TPAD appraisal tool being used to assess the achievement in the Comprehensive Learning Environment is
deficient as in appraisal of other aspects of the Teacher PC process (Wanjiku et al, 2024). The Key elements in
the comprehensive learning environment include physical safety, inclusivity, emotional support, teacher-student
relationships, and active learning approaches which are all crucial in creating an environment that fosters student
success (Kamoet and Mbirithi,2024). Aspects like emotional support, learners feeling valued are psychological
aspects which are subjective. The TPAD tool lacks aspects assessment of emotional support, teacher-student
relationships, and active learning approaches.
CONCLUSION
Teachers’ achievement in the Comprehensive Learning Environment target had no effect on learning outcomes
of pupils in public primary schools in Kakamega County.
RECOMMENDATION
The government should provide adequate resources for effective implementation of the Comprehensive
Learning Environment in Public primary schools
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