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Identifying Domestic Violence as a Public Health Problem Through
the Lens of Public Health Criteria
Khaleda Rockshana Mahbub
Dhaka University, Bangladesh
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.903SEDU0632
Received: 15 October 2025; Accepted: 23 October 2025; Published: 11 November 2025
ABSTRACT:
Domestic Violence-DV, including violences conducted by intimate partners and other family members, is an
acute problem of current world, hampering not only physical and mental health of victims but also imposing
psychological problems among the children of family. Although this problem is widespread in developing
country like Bangladesh, but still not recognized as public health problem. This paper tried to identify the DV
as public health problem as it meets all four criteria for becoming public health problem.
Keywords; Domestic violence, Physical and mental health, children trauma, public health.
INTRODUCTION
Domestic violence is a pattern of abusive behavior in any relationship used to gain or maintain power and
control over an intimate partner, encompassing physical, sexual, emotional, psychological, and economic
abuse within the domestic sphere (UN, 2019). Several studies depicted that it is not only a social or legal issue
but also a serious public health concern because of its impact on physical and mental health, reproductive
health, and overall well-being. According to the definition of World Health Organization (WHO), public health
refers to all organized measures, whether public or private, to prevent disease, promote health, and prolong life
among the population. Domestic violence, by affecting both mental and physical health and in severe cases
even limiting life, clearly qualifies as a public health problem
In Bangladesh, domestic violence is highly prevalent. According to the Violence Against Women Survey
conducted by BBS and UNFPA in 2024, about 70% of women have experienced some form of domestic
violence in their lifetime. Like many other public health issues, domestic violence is often rooted in
socioeconomic disadvantage or inequality. Many factors such as poverty, poor education, and unemployment
are treated as potential risk factors for domestic violence.
METHODOLOGY
This study adopted a qualitative research design based solely on secondary data sources. Relevant information
was collected from peer-reviewed journal articles, government and non-government reports, international
organization documents (such as WHO, UNFPA, and UN Women), and existing national surveys including
those conducted by the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. Data were gathered through a systematic review of
available literature using keywords such as “domestic violence,” “public health,” and “Bangladesh.” The
collected materials were analyzed thematically to examine whether domestic violence meets the major criteria
for a public health problem—its widespread nature, affected population groups, preventability, and the
presence of prevention measures.
Concept of Public Health Problem
Over the past century, the definition and scope of public health have evolved significantly, reflecting societal
and global aspirations for health for all (Beaglehole & Bonita, 2004). Traditional public health focused
primarily on controlling communicable diseases through sanitation, vaccination, and hygiene improvements.
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While these efforts, especially the sanitary revolution, significantly reduced diseases, as well as highlights that
societal factors such as nutrition, education, housing, maternal and child health, and occupational health were
equally important in shaping population health (Beaglehole & Bonita, 2004). In recent decades, recognition of
women’s health, health inequalities, and high-risk populations has expanded public health’s focus beyond
classical interventions.
Modern public health, or the “New Public Health,” integrates classical approaches with contemporary
advances in health promotion, management of healthcare systems, and attention to social determinants of
health (Beaglehole & Bonita, 2004). It is multidisciplinary, drawing on basic and applied sciences, social
sciences, economics, education, management, and communication to improve both individual and population
health. Central to this approach is the holistic understanding of health encompassing both physical and mental
well-being, rooted in principles established in ancient times. Public health now addresses environmental,
occupational, biological, social, and economic factors that influence health, emphasizing equity and access for
vulnerable populations (Beaglehole & Bonita, 2004).
The evolution of public health has been shaped by scientific advances and practical experience. Historical
debates, such as the germ versus miasma theory, contributed to understanding both biological and
environmental determinants of health (Beaglehole & Bonita, 2004). Modern challenges, including non-
communicable diseases, population aging, urbanization, climate change, globalization, and pandemics, have
necessitated adaptive and comprehensive approaches. Global successes, such as the eradication of smallpox
and ongoing polio campaigns, illustrate the potential for coordinated international efforts, while ongoing
inequities highlight persistent gaps in access and resources (Beaglehole & Bonita, 2004).
The New Public Health emphasizes disease prevention, health promotion, and health systems management.
Programs now range from immunization, nutrition, and maternal-child health to disaster preparedness,
occupational safety, and equitable access to healthcare (Beaglehole & Bonita, 2004). Innovations in
technology, biotechnology, molecular biology, and information systems have enhanced prevention, diagnosis,
and treatment capabilities. Additionally, public health now incorporates ethical and humanistic values,
emphasizing the rights of individuals to health knowledge, safe environments, and accessible services.
In brief, public health has transformed from a narrow focus on infectious disease control to a broad, integrated
discipline addressing the complex interplay of biological, social, environmental, and technological factors. It
remains a dynamic field that requires continuous adaptation to global changes, scientific discoveries, and
societal needs, ensuring equitable access to health and the promotion of health for all individuals and
communities (Beaglehole & Bonita, 2004).
Overview of Domestic Violence in Bangladesh
Domestic violence is very prevalent in Bangladesh, although there is little buzz about this problem. In
Bangladesh, violence against women is occurring in almost every aspect of women’s lives and being a serious
threat to overall development and progress of the country (Parvin and et al, 2016). There are numbers of
factors and reasons that accelerate the rate of domestic violence in BD. Such as in our country particularly in
rural areas dowry incidents and physical torture and murder for dowry were common phenomena (Parvin and
et al, 2016). Just before some years, the UNFPA Report mentioned that this region is the first ranking in the
world in wife beating and Bangladesh got itself at the top of the index. It is evident that domestic violence is
rampant in all strata of the society naturally and usually, women are the first violence of this violence (Parvin
and et al, 2016).
Despite its increasing trend, domestic violence is viewed as a personal matter that should be resolved privately
within the family (Parvin and et al, 2016). Bangladesh Mahila Parishad (BMP) reported that in our country
domestic violence is not still considered as a violence of human rights of women. The mental and physical
health problems that arise from domestic violence are not considered as public health problems. Patriarchal
social and family structure and culture are the main causes of this attitude towards domestic violence (Kay,
2008). For this reason, the condition of women in Bangladesh is vulnerable.
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Types of Violence
(%)
Lifetime
In last 12 months
2024
2024
Physical
47.3
10.6
Sexual
29.3
9.4
Emotional
37.4
17.7
Table 1: trends in the prevalence of intimate partner violence experienced at least once among
ever-married women aged 15 and above and within last 12 months
Source: Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS), 2024. Violence against women Survey.
Domestic Violence as A Public Health Problem: Through the Lens of Major Criteria
To be recognized as a public health problem, any health-related issue should meet certain criteria, specially the
four major criteria – widespread in nature, affects certain portion of community, preventable, and prevention
measures are in place.
Fig- Domestic Violence in the Lens of Major Criteria of Public Health
WIDESPREAD NATURE OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE
Domestic violence is highly prevalent and widespread in Bangladesh. According to a Bangladesh Bureau of
Statistics survey, about 72.6% of ever-married women reported experiencing some form of domestic violence
by their husbands and in-laws’ family members at least once in their lives (BBS, 2015). More recent data from
UNFPA (2023) indicate that around 45% of women in South Asia, including Bangladesh, experience physical
or sexual violence by an intimate partner, highlighting its widespread nature (UNFPA, 2023). In the same
survey, 41% of women reported experiencing domestic violence in the past 12 months and more than half
(54%) of women interviewed had experienced physical and/or sexual violence from their husbands at some
point in their life; while 16% reported such violence in the past year. (UNFPA, 2024) . The Ain o Salish
Kendra (ASK), a non-governmental organization of Bangladesh, documented domestic violence data from 14
leading national dailies showed that reporting cases of domestic violence in the first half of 2024 was 269,
including torture and murder by husbands and their families (ASK, 2024). These are the reported cases and
there are numerous cases that are not reported as it considered personal matters.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, a study of married women living with their partners found domestic violence
prevalence about 45.3%, including emotional abuse (~44.1%), physical or sexual (~19.2%), physical
(~15.3%), and sexual (~10.6%) violence. (Rayhan, et.al. 2021).
Several studies in Bangladesh have demonstrated the serious physical and mental health consequences of
domestic violence, highlighting its nature as a public health problem. It was found that nearly one in three
victims of domestic violence reported to have injuries; severity of violence was strongly associated with higher
risk of major depressive episodes (Yount et al., 2019). Experiences of physical, emotional, or controlling
violence among women significantly increased their likelihood of depression (Khan et al., 2021). More
Domestic Violence
in Bangladesh
Widely Spreading
Affecting mostly
the women of
certain socio-
economic group
Preventive measures like
policies and laws are available
Preventable if
the factors
affecting DV
is controled
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recently, a study among early married adolescent girls in Khulna during COVID-19 reported alarmingly high
rates of emotional (93.7%), physical (89.5%), and sexual (87.8%) violence, which were closely linked to poor
mental health outcomes (Siddique et al., 2023). These findings provide clear evidence that domestic violence
in Bangladesh not only leads to physical injuries but also causes long-term psychological harm, thereby
fulfilling the criteria for recognition as a public health problem.
Countries
In lifetime (%)
Within 12 months (%)
Bangladesh
54.2
26.9
Bhutan
18.0
5.6
India
29.3
24.0
Maldives
16.3
5.6
Nepal
25.1
12.9
Pakistan
24.5
14.5
Sri Lanka
20.4
6.0
Table 2: Women experienced physical and/or sexual violence by an intimate partner in their lifetime and
within 12 months in countries of south Aisa
Source: UNFPA/KnowVAWData. 2024
AFFECTS CERTAIN SECTIONS OF THE COMMUNITY
It was observed through several studies and research that education and economic status are critical factors
influencing women’s vulnerability to domestic violence in Bangladesh. Women and girls with less education
and low economic status easily affected by domestic violence. Studies show that women with little or no
education are at a significantly higher risk of experiencing spousal abuse compared to those with secondary or
higher education (Naved & Persson, 2005). However, education alone does not provide full protection, as
socio-cultural norms such as dowry and patriarchal expectations can still expose educated women to violence
(Huq & Amin, 2001). Economic dependency remains one of the strongest predictors of women’s inability to
escape abusive relationships. Women with limited economic empowerment—such as those without
independent income or control over financial resources—are more likely to tolerate violence due to fear of
social stigma, economic insecurity, and concern for their children’s survival (Niaz, 2003; UNFPA, 2023). On
the other hand, women who are economically empowered and engaged in income-generating activities
demonstrate greater bargaining power within households and lower vulnerability to domestic violence (Amin,
2008). Nonetheless, structural inequalities, including wage gaps, limited employment opportunities, and
restricted access to property ownership, continue to perpetuate women’s economic disempowerment in
Bangladesh, thereby sustaining the cycle of abuse.
The COVID-19 study found higher domestic violence among women with lower education, lower family
income, housewives/unemployed women. (Rayhan, et al. 2021). In another study revealed that rural women
had different attitudes and higher prevalence of wife-beating, especially when spousal education gaps were
large or when women had low decision-making power in the household. (Hossain, et al. 2022)
Recent study showed that women living in disaster-prone areas where people suffered with economic
instability, migration and stressed livelihood are more likely to experience domestic violence both in their
lifetime and more recently than women in non-disaster areas. (UNFPEA, 2024).
So, it can be said that not all women are affected equally by domestic violence. Vulnerability increases with
lower education, low income, living in challenging environments and limited power in decision making.
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PREVENTABILITY OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE
Domestic violence is fully preventable, and research showed several modifiable risk factors such as education
level of both partners, women’s employment status, spousal education gap, decision-making power of women,
economic status. Interventions focusing on these (education, economic empowerment, awareness) have
potential to reduce DV.
It is observed that, countries with high female education levels often report lower rates of domestic violence.
For example, in Norway, where female literacy and higher education enrollment are among the highest
globally, women experience significantly lower rates of intimate partner violence. Education enhances
women’s economic independence, awareness of legal rights, and access to support services, all of which
reduce their vulnerability to domestic violence (Grødem, 2016). Similarly, Finland shows that higher female
education, combined with strong gender equality policies, is associated with reduced domestic violence
prevalence (Kivivuori & Törnudd, 2018). These examples highlight that education, when supported by
equitable social and legal structures, can serve as a critical factor in preventing domestic violence.
Education helps to increase women’s economic empowerment and their voices in decision making of family
and society. A dignified woman is always strong enough to fight against any harmful cultural practices in
society. So, it can be said that many aspects of domestic violence are preventable through social, economic,
legal, and educational interventions.
PREVENTION MEASURES IN PLACE
To reduce domestic violence and its impact on the mental and physical health of women and girls, Bangladesh
government has taken a number of preventive measures. Laws, policies, and legal protections are in place to
safeguard women from domestic violence. Moreover, both government and non-government organizations are
working together to raise awareness about the negative impacts of domestic violence on women and children,
as well as to ensure the proper implementation of these laws and policies.
Laws and legal protections
The Domestic Violence (Prevention and Protection) Act, 2010 provides legal framework for protection orders,
residence orders, monetary relief for victims etc. The Women and Children Repression Prevention Act, 2000
criminalizes various forms of violence against women and children.
The Penal Code of Bangladesh has provisions criminalizing assault, battery, and unlawful detention.
Government acknowledgement and policy efforts
The Bangladesh government has enacted several laws to fight gender-based discrimination and violence, e.g.,
Prevention of Oppression Against Women and Children Act (2000), Domestic Violence (Prevention and
Protection) Act (2010), Pornography (Control) Act (2012), and Prevention of Human Trafficking Act (2012).
The 2024 VAW Survey is itself a major effort to collect data, monitor trends, and provide evidence for policy
and programmatic action. But gaps remain in enforcement, awareness, reporting, and social stigma, which
limit the effectiveness of prevention measures.
Bangladesh, as a member state of the United Nations, has committed to achieving the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030. It has specific targets for reducing domestic violence along with VAW
for achieving SDG.
SDG Goal
UN Indicator Related to DV
Bangladesh Related to DV
Bangladesh Target
Goal 5:
Achieve
gender
equality and
5.2: Eliminate all forms of
violence against all women
and girls in the public and
private spheres, including
5.2.1: Proportion of ever-
partnered women and girls
aged 15 years and older
subjected to physical, sexual
5.2.1.1: Reducing the rate of
intimate-partner violence
experienced by ever-
partnered women aged 15+
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empower all
women and
girls
trafficking and sexual and
other exploitation.
or psychological violence by
a current or former intimate
partner in the previous 12
months, by form of violence
and by age group.
during the previous 12
months to 20% by 2025 for
this indicator.
Therefore, based on the above discussion, since domestic violence meets the four basic criteria of a public
health issue, it should be considered a public health problem
GAPS AND CHALLENGES IN ADDRESSING DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AS A PUBLIC HEALTH PROBLEM
Despite recognition of domestic violence as a significant public health issue, there are numerous gaps and
challenges in addressing it effectively. In Bangladesh, domestic violence is often considered as a private or
family matter, which discourages reporting and undermines legal enforcement (Parvin et al., 2016). Cultural
norms and patriarchal values continue to perpetuate gender inequality, limiting women’s ability to seek help or
access resources (Kay, 2008). Although laws such as the Domestic Violence (Prevention and Protection) Act
2010 exist, implementation remains weak due to limited awareness, insufficient training of law enforcement
personnel, and lack of coordination between government and non-government agencies (Hasan & Hossain,
2016). Furthermore, economic dependence, low literacy, and lack of social support systems make women
vulnerable to repeated abuse (Amin, 2008; Naved & Persson, 2005). Data collection is another challenge, as
most cases go unreported, particularly in rural areas, making it difficult to assess the true magnitude and to
design targeted interventions (Farouk, 2005). These gaps highlight the need for a multi-sectoral approach that
integrates legal, social, economic, and health interventions to effectively reduce domestic violence and its
health impacts.
Domestic Violence: A Critical Public Health Priority
Domestic violence (DV) is a major public health concern because it has significant contribution to morbidity,
mortality, disability, and mental health burdens among women and children. Women experienced domestic
violence in their lifetime, often suffer from physical injuries, chronic pain, reproductive health problems, and
mental health issues such as depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (WHO, 2013; Hashem et
al., 2020). Like any other well-known public health problem in Bangladesh such as malnutrition, dengue,
Diarrhea, Domestic violence is equally destructive but often less visible due to underreporting and social
stigma. Sometimes domestic violence affects children’s mental health. Children who experience violence at
their family are at high risk of developing emotional, behavioral, and cognitive problems, perpetuating cycles
of abuse and trauma (Kitzmann et al., 2003; WHO, 2013). Considering its widespread nature, mental and
physical health consequences, and societal costs, domestic violence needs recognition as a public health
priority alongside other pressing health challenges.
CONCLUSION
Domestic violence is a major problem of Bangladesh that meets the four key criteria of a public health
problem. It affects the physical and mental health of women and children and hinders many women from
enjoying their life. Although there are preventive measures like policies and laws in Bangladesh cultural
norms, economic dependence, and lack of awareness still contribute to sustain this severe problem.
Domestic violence should be officially recognized and addressed as a public health issue within Bangladesh’s
national health strategies. The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare can integrate screening, counseling, and
referral services for domestic violence victims into existing health facilities, especially at the community clinic
and upazila health complex levels.
Policies should prioritize women’s education, employment opportunities, and economic independence as key
preventive measures. Nationwide awareness campaigns led by both government and civil society should
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challenge harmful gender norms, promote respectful relationships, and increase knowledge of available legal
and health support services.
Recognizing domestic violence as a public health priority will help to design effective strategies, ensure proper
implementation of policies, and promote the overall well-being of individuals and communities.
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