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In the era of rapid digital transformation, the role of teachers extends beyond classroom instruction to include
designing innovative digital learning materials. This study explores how pre-service teachers perceive the
teacher’s role in digital innovation, particularly in creating engaging and relevant digital learning content and
drawing on qualitative data from 42 participants enrolled in a postgraduate teacher education programme in
Malaysia, an open-ended online reflection was used to gather participants’ views. Data were analysed
thematically following Braun and Clarke’s six-phase framework. Three central themes emerged: (1) teachers as
designers of digital learning materials tailored to learners’ needs; (2) technological competence and innovation
culture; and (3) collaboration and knowledge sharing as enablers of digital practice. Findings indicate that pre-
service teachers view teachers as proactive creators who require not only technical skills but also pedagogical
creativity, reflective practice, and institutional support. The study proposes a conceptual framework linking
digital design, technology integration, and professional collaboration as key components of teacher-led
innovation. These insights contribute to understanding how future educators situate themselves within the digital
landscape and provide guidance for improving teacher education curricula, professional development, and policy
frameworks supporting digital transformation in education.
Pre-Service Teachers
Education systems around the world are undergoing a profound transformation driven by technological
advancement and the evolving needs of twenty-first-century learners. Classrooms once defined by textbooks
and whiteboards are now dynamic digital environments where technology mediates every aspect of teaching
and learning. Digital platforms, interactive media, and online communication tools have become central to
curriculum delivery, assessment, and student engagement [1]. These developments are prompting educators and
policymakers to reconsider the nature of teaching, shifting emphasis from content transmission to creativity,
collaboration, and digital fluency. Consequently, teachers' professional identity is being redefined. Teachers
today are expected not only to facilitate learning but also to design, curate, and innovate within technology-rich
educational ecosystems [2, 3].
Globally, there is growing recognition that digital literacy, creativity, and adaptability are essential competencies
for teachers in the twenty-first century. International frameworks, as the UNESCO ICT Competency Framework
for Teachers, emphasise the need for educators to move beyond basic technological use toward pedagogical
innovation and digital leadership [4]. This global direction aligns with broader aims to prepare learners for
participation in a technology-driven society that values critical thinking, problem solving, and lifelong learning.
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Within this context, teachers play a crucial role in fostering learners’ digital agency and ensuring equitable
access to technology-enhanced education [5].
In Malaysia, these international priorities are reflected in reforms such as the Malaysia Education Blueprint
2013–2025 (MEB) and the Digital Education Policy (DEP). Both initiatives stress the importance of integrating
digital competence into teacher education and ongoing professional development [6]. The MEB aspires to
produce technologically capable teachers who can deliver student-centred, future-ready instruction. At the same
time, the DEP reinforces this by promoting innovation, digital infrastructure, and data-informed pedagogy at all
levels of education. Together, these policies mark a shift from conventional instruction toward digitally
mediated, learner-centred practice. As a result, Malaysian teachers are increasingly positioned as facilitators of
knowledge, designers of digital content, and collaborators in networked learning communities who shape not
only what students learn but also how learning is experienced in the digital age [7, 8]
The integration of digital technologies has fundamentally transformed how knowledge is created, shared, and
experienced in education. Digital platforms extend learning beyond the classroom, enabling interactive, flexible,
and personalised teaching approaches. Tools such as Google Classroom, Quizizz, and Canva for Education allow
teachers to design engaging lessons that accommodate diverse learning styles and promote active participation.
The global transition toward online and hybrid learning has further highlighted the importance of digital
innovation, compelling educators to rethink how instruction is designed and delivered in technology-enriched
contexts [9, 10]. Over the past two decades, pedagogical models such as blended learning, flipped classrooms,
gamified learning, adaptive systems, and fully online environments have become integral to modern education
[11, 12]. Although many of these models existed before the COVID-19 pandemic, the crisis accelerated their
adoption and demonstrated their potential for sustaining educational continuity. What was once an enhancement
to traditional teaching has become a defining element of effective twenty-first-century education.
More recently, the emergence of generative artificial intelligence (AI) tools such as ChatGPT, Gemini, and
DALL·E, along with adaptive learning systems, has further transformed the digital learning landscape. These
technologies introduce both opportunities and challenges for educators, enabling personalisation and creativity
while raising questions about authorship, data ethics, and pedagogical integrity. Consequently, teachers are
expected to act as discerning mediators who integrate such technologies critically, ensuring that their use aligns
with educational values and learning objectives rather than technological novelty alone.
From a theoretical perspective, frameworks such as the SAMR model (Substitution, Augmentation,
Modification, Redefinition) and the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework
provide lenses for understanding meaningful technology integration [13]. The SAMR model outlines how digital
tools can evolve from substituting traditional tasks to transforming learning experiences, while TPACK
emphasises the interplay between technology, pedagogy, and content knowledge. Both frameworks highlight
that successful digital integration requires more than technical skill; it depends on pedagogical reasoning,
thoughtful design, and purposeful application [14]. Ultimately, the effectiveness of digital learning lies not in the
technology itself but in how teachers use it to enhance engagement, creativity, and understanding.
In this changing educational landscape, teachers play a central role as mediators between technology and
pedagogy. They are no longer passive users of predesigned materials but active creators who design, adapt, and
innovate digital content to meet diverse learning needs. This expanded role requires integrating pedagogical
goals with digital tools to improve engagement, stimulate critical thinking, and support differentiated instruction
[15, 16]. The success of digital education, therefore, depends on teachers’ ability to make informed and creative
decisions about technology use. Theoretical perspectives such as Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovation Theory and
the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) explain how teachers adopt technology, showing that early adopters
often catalyse change by modelling best practices and influencing peers [17, 18]. These frameworks reinforce
that digital transformation in education is shaped not only by access to tools but by teachers’ attitudes,
competencies, and sense of agency.
Teacher agency refers to the capacity to make autonomous, reflective, and purposeful decisions about practice.
Empowering teachers to exercise agency is essential for meaningful digital integration. When teachers see
themselves as innovators rather than implementers, they are more likely to experiment, collaborate, and engage
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in continuous improvement. This mindset strengthens instructional quality and nurtures a culture of innovation
in schools and teacher education programmes. Research shows that teacher agency drives digital adoption,
professional growth, and transformative practice, even under institutional or technological constraints [19, 20].
Understanding how teachers conceptualise their roles in digital innovation is therefore critical for shaping
professional development and policy strategies that promote sustainable transformation.
Despite growing emphasis on digital innovation, many teachers face challenges in developing the required
competencies. Common barriers include limited access to quality training [21], inadequate infrastructure [22],
lack of time for experimentation [23], and low confidence in using new technologies [24]. These challenges are
often intensified by disparities in resources across schools, leading to uneven implementation of digital
initiatives. In Malaysia, although policies such as the Digital Education Policy and the Malaysia Education
Blueprint provide strategic direction, classroom-level execution remains inconsistent, especially in under-
resourced contexts [25]. Such constraints limit teachers’ ability to design and deliver compelling digital learning
experiences that respond to diverse learner needs. The European Framework for the Digital Competence of
Educators (DigCompEdu) captures this complexity by outlining six areas of competence: professional
engagement, digital resources, teaching and learning, assessment, empowering learners, and supporting learners’
digital competence [26, 27]. Developing these competencies requires structured professional learning,
mentoring, and institutional support. Without these supports, digital innovation risks becoming fragmented and
unsustainable.
Pre-service teachers, as future educators, represent the next generation of change agents in digital education.
Their perceptions of digital innovation provide critical insight into how well teacher education programmes
prepare them for modern classrooms. Studies show that while many pre-service teachers are eager to develop
digital competencies and see themselves as creators and innovators, a significant number feel inadequately
prepared to integrate digital learning into future practice [28, 29]. This sense of unpreparedness is especially
evident among those outside STEM disciplines and those with greater teaching experience [30]. Many also
express a need for more integrated, collaborative, and practice-based approaches rather than isolated coursework
[31]. When pre-service teachers perceive themselves as unsupported, it highlights gaps in preparation that must
be addressed to ensure readiness for digital education. Beliefs, attitudes, and self-efficacy developed during
training, which strongly influence future teaching behaviour [32, 33]. Understanding these perspectives is
therefore vital for improving teacher education curricula, strengthening professional development, and guiding
national strategies for sustainable digital transformation (Habibi et al., 2022).
Although digital transformation has become integral to modern education, limited research has examined how
pre-service teachers perceive their roles in this changing landscape, particularly in relation to digital innovation
and the design of learning materials. Most existing studies focus on practising teachers, leaving a gap in
understanding how teacher education programmes prepare future educators to integrate technology creatively
and purposefully. This study addresses that gap by examining how pre-service teachers conceptualise the
teacher’s role in digital innovation, with particular emphasis on designing meaningful and engaging digital
learning materials. Using qualitative reflections from postgraduate teacher . The study identifies key themes that
capture the perceptions of teachers as designers, innovators, and collaborators in digital contexts. The findings
contribute to understanding teacher readiness for digital education and offer insights for improving teacher
training, curriculum design, and institutional support to strengthen innovation and professional competence in
teaching.
This study employed a qualitative research design to explore how pre-service teachers conceptualised the
teacher’s role in digital innovation, with particular focus on the design of digital learning materials. A qualitative
approach was chosen to allow an in-depth understanding of participants’ experiences and the meanings they
attached to their professional learning. The study was grounded in an interpretive paradigm that views knowledge
as socially constructed through participants’ perspectives and interactions within their educational context.
Within this framework, data were analysed thematically using Braun and Clarke’s six-phase procedure. This
approach enabled systematic and transparent identification of patterns and relationships across the dataset,
offering rich insight into how participants made sense of digital innovation in teacher education [34, 35].
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ATLAS.ti software was used to organise, code, and manage data efficiently, enhancing transparency, reliability,
and traceability throughout the analytical process.
The study was conducted within a postgraduate teacher education programme at a public university in Malaysia.
The programme emphasises digital pedagogy and educational innovation as core elements of teacher
professional development, reflecting national priorities under Education 4.0 that promote digital competence and
creative teaching practices [36]. Participants comprised 42 pre-service teachers enrolled in the programme during
the relevant academic session. They represented diverse subject disciplines but were at a comparable stage of
professional preparation. A total population sampling strategy was adopted, inviting all students registered for
the course to participate. This approach ensured inclusivity and captured a broad range of perspectives within a
single cohort [37]. Participation was voluntary, with no academic credit or grade incentives offered, thereby
upholding ethical principles and minimising coercion. Including participants from different disciplines enabled
a richer understanding of how pre-service teachers conceptualised digital pedagogy and educational innovation.
This inclusive sampling design also aligns with recommendations in teacher education research that emphasise
the importance of representing varied voices to inform continuous improvement in teacher education
programmes, both in Malaysia and globally [38].
Data were collected through an online, open-ended written reflection administered during a scheduled class
session. The reflection prompt invited participants to share their perspectives on the teacher’s role in developing
innovative digital learning materials and to reflect on the knowledge, skills, and values essential for that role.
Written reflections were selected to allow participants to respond thoughtfully and at their own pace, thereby
promoting authenticity and depth. Prior research supports the use of open-ended written reflections for capturing
nuanced insights into pre-service teachers’ beliefs, digital practices, and professional learning experiences [39].
Responses were submitted through a secure online form, anonymised immediately to maintain confidentiality,
and imported into ATLAS.ti for analysis. Using a digital platform supported both participant comfort and data
integrity. Employing a single qualitative method was considered appropriate for the exploratory aim of this study,
, which seek to generate interpretive insights into participants’ conceptualisations rather than to measure
predetermined variables. This approach aligns with established practices in qualitative educational research,
where reflective writing is valued for its capacity to reveal the complexity of teacher learning and innovation in
digital contexts [40].
This research was conducted at a single public university in Malaysia and therefore reflects the experiences of a
specific institutional and cultural setting. While the findings provide valuable insights into pre-service teachers’
understanding of digital innovation, they should be interpreted within this bounded context. To enhance the
credibility of the study, the researcher’s reflexivity was maintained throughout the process. The research team,
comprising members actively involved in teacher education, kept reflexive memos to monitor assumptions and
minimise interpretive bias. Coding was collaboratively discussed and refined through peer debriefing to
strengthen the dependability and transparency of the thematic analysis.
Data analysis followed Braun and Clarke’s six phase framework, recognised for its rigour and flexibility in
qualitative research (Byrne, 2021). This process allowed systematic identification of recurring ideas,
relationships, and, while maintaining the contextual depth of participants’ reflections. ATLAS.ti facilitated
transparent coding, linking,, and for retrieving textual evidence throughout the analysis.
Phase 1: Familiarisation with Data -All 42 written reflections were read several times to gain a comprehensive
understanding of participants’ perspectives. During this stage, the researchers recorded notes on emerging ideas
related to creativity, technological literacy, collaboration, and innovation in digital learning. This familiarisation
phase provided a holistic overview of how pre-service teachers perceived the evolving role of teachers in
technology enhanced education [41].
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Phase 2: Generating Initial CodesThe second phase involved systematically examining the data to identify
meaningful text segments. Each segment was assigned descriptive codes that captured both explicit statements
and underlying meanings. Coding was inductive, allowing themes to emerge directly from the data rather than
from predefined theoretical frameworks. This approach ensured that the analysis remained grounded in
participants’ authentic experiences [42]. The resulting codes reflected diverse perspectives on teachers’ roles as
designers of digital materials, their creative processes, and their responsibilities in fostering innovation.
Phase 3: Searching for ThemesIn this phase, related codes were clustered into broader categories that represent
patterned meanings across the dataset. Relationships among codes were examined to identify potential themes
and subthemes, marking the transition from descriptive to interpretive analysis. For instance, codes related to
designing and adapting digital materials were grouped under Teachers as Designers of Digital Learning
Materials; those addressing professional growth, digital confidence, and openness to innovation were organised
under Technological Competence and Innovation Culture; while references to teamwork, mentoring, and
resource sharing were categorised as Collaboration and Knowledge Sharing. This phase established the
preliminary thematic structure and reflected the multifaceted roles pre-service teachers envisioned for
themselves in technology-enhanced education [43].
Phase 4: Reviewing Themes Emerging themes were refined and validated to ensure coherence and
distinctiveness. Each theme was checked against the coded extracts and the full dataset to confirm internal
consistency and conceptual clarity. Overlapping categories were merged or redefined to improve accuracy; for
example, Digital Readiness and Technological Literacy were consolidated into Teacher Competence and
Readiness. Data segments not aligned with the study’s focus were excluded with transparent justification,
ensuring the credibility and validity of the thematic structure.
Phase 5: Defining and Naming ThemesEach finalised theme was further refined to capture its essence and
relevance to the research objectives. Three key themes were confirmed: Teachers as Designers of Digital
Learning Materials, describing creative and adaptive roles in constructing meaningful digital resources;
Technological Competence and Innovation Culture, reflecting capacity and willingness to engage with
technology for continuous improvement; and Collaboration and Knowledge Sharing, highlighting the
importance of professional interaction and peer learning in sustaining innovation. Each theme was accompanied
by an analytical description that explained its significance for understanding pre-service teachers’
conceptualisations of digital innovation.
Phase 6: Producing the Report The final phase involved synthesising the themes into a coherent analytical
narrative. Direct quotations from participants supported the interpretations, ensuring that the findings remained
grounded in the data. The themes were contextualised using theoretical perspectives such as the Technological
Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework and Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovation Theory, both of
which explain how teachers integrate technology and how individual innovativeness influences adoption (Byrne,
2021). The use of ATLAS.ti throughout the process, ti enhanced transparency, traceability, and confirmability by
systematically linking codes, data segments, and analytic memos.
Overall, the six-phase thematic analysis generated deep insights into how pre-service teachers conceptualised
the teacher’s role as a creative designer, competent technologist, and collaborative innovator in the digital era.
The thematic analysis of 42 responses from pre-service teachers revealed three central, interrelated themes that
describe their perceptions of the teacher’s role in developing innovative digital learning materials. This study
explored how pre-service teachers understand the role of teachers in creating innovative digital learning
materials. The findings suggest that they perceive teachers as creative designers, competent technology users,
and active collaborators in professional communities. These perceptions reflect a broader transformation in
education, in which the teacher’s role extends beyond classroom instruction to encompass design, adaptation,
and innovation in digital pedagogy. The themes are (1) Teachers as Designers of Digital Learning Materials, (2)
Technological Competence and Innovation Culture and (3) Collaboration and Knowledge Sharing. Together,
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these themes provide a holistic understanding of how future educators conceptualise the teacher’s identity as a
creative designer, technologically competent practitioner, and collaborative innovator in the digital era.
TABLE I THEMES, SUBTHEMES, AND REPRESENTATIVE RESPONSES ON TEACHERS’ ROLE IN
DEVELOPING INNOVATIVE DIGITAL LEARNING MATERIALS
Theme
Subtheme
Description (Interpretation)
Illustrative Quote (Participant)
1. Teachers as
Designers of
Digital
Learning
Materials
Creative and
purposeful
design
Teachers create digital materials
that are interactive, appealing,
and aligned with learning goals.
“Teachers should design learning
experiences, not just slides or notes.”
(R12)
Adaptation to
learners’ needs
Materials must be tailored to
students’ levels and learning
styles.
“Digital materials must be designed
according to students’ abilities and
aligned with outcomes.” (R28)
Pedagogical
innovation
Innovation involves rethinking
how content is presented, not just
adding technology.
“It’s about creating learning that helps
students explore, not only using
gadgets.” (R06)
2.
Technological
Competence
and Innovation
Culture
Digital literacy
and confidence
Teachers need confidence and
practical skills to use digital tools
effectively.
“Teachers today must be digitally
literate and confident.” (R6)
Continuous
professional
learning
Ongoing training is needed to
keep up with fast-changing
technology.
“Teachers should always upgrade
themselves with new tools and
methods.” (R19)
Institutional
and resource
barriers
Time, infrastructure, and limited
training can restrict innovation.
“It’s hard to innovate when schools
lack stable internet and training.”
(R32)
3.
Collaboration
and
Knowledge
Sharing
Peer support
and teamwork
Teachers learn and innovate
through collective discussion and
resource sharing.
“When teachers share ideas and
resources, innovation spreads faster.”
(R35)
Professional
learning
communities
Collaboration builds shared
growth and supports creativity.
“Teachers need communities that
support them to explore new ideas
together.” (R27)
Shared
professional
identity
Collaboration fosters motivation
and shared responsibility for
improvement.
“Working together helps us feel
confident to try new approaches.”
(R41)
Recognising innovation as an ongoing process requires educators to cultivate a flexible and reflective mindset.
This assertion is grounded in the understanding that teaching is not merely about implementing technologies but
about leveraging them to enhance pedagogical practices. When teachers perceive technology as a means to
facilitate learning rather than an end in itself, they tend to integrate it more effectively into their instructional
strategies, thereby fostering a creative and purposeful educational environment [44, 45]. This perspective aligns
with the notion that teacher preparation programs must prioritise digital literacy alongside traditional
pedagogical reasoning, equipping pre-service educators with the necessary skills to apply technology for
addressing instructional challenges, personalising learning experiences, and promoting active student
engagement [46, 47].
Moreover, the importance of digital literacy in current educational landscapes cannot be overstated, especially
in preparing students for the demands of the 21st century. Teachers who recognize the value of digital
competencies are better positioned to integrate these skills into their teaching practices, ultimately enhancing
student readiness for future academic and professional pursuits. For instance, findings indicate that integrating
digital literacy equips students with essential skills such as critical thinking, creativity, collaboration, and
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effective communication [48]. Teachers' self-efficacy plays a crucial role in this dynamic as it influences their
willingness to embrace digital tools and pedagogical innovations in their classrooms [49, 50]. Thus, fostering a
supportive environment that enhances educators' self-efficacy in using technology can significantly improve
their ability to incorporate digital literacy into their teaching practices [51, 52].
In this context, it becomes evident that teacher preparation must address the multifaceted nature of digital
literacy. Emphasizing training that encompasses not only technological proficiency, but also ethical
considerations and safety awareness is vital for nurturing responsible digital citizens among students [53, 54].
As teachers refine their digital competencies, they not only serve as role models for their students but also play
an integral part in shaping a generation that can navigate the complexities of the digital age effectively [55].
Therefore, a concerted effort to enrich teacher training with a robust framework for digital literacy is essential
for fostering an adaptable, reflective, and innovative teaching workforce.
The theme highlights that teachers should not merely act as implementers of ready-made resources but as active
designers of learning experiences. Many pre-service teachers viewed teachers as professionals who create
engaging, interactive, and contextually relevant digital content that aligns with students’ needs and learning
outcomes. Participants emphasised that teachers must be able to design materials that are both pedagogically
meaningful and technologically appealing.
Some responses described innovative teaching as the ability to “design learning experiences, not just slides or
notes,” reflecting an understanding that digital innovation is deeply connected to pedagogical creativity rather
than technology alone. Others highlighted the importance of adapting materials for different learning levels, with
one participant noting that “digital materials must be designed according to students’ abilities and aligned with
learning outcomes, not just copied from online resources.” These insights position teachers as learning architects
who curate content to engage students meaningfully. This view strongly aligns with the Technological
Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework, which integrates technological, pedagogical, and content
knowledge to support purposeful technology integration into instructional design.
Thus, teachers acting as designers of digital learning materials demonstrate an awareness that effective digital
teaching requires creativity, intentional design, and in pedagogical planning. Pre-service teachers view teachers
as professionals who do more than deliver content. They design learning experiences that are engaging and
meaningful. This supports the broader educational shift toward design-based pedagogy, where teachers are
creators of knowledge environments rather than passive transmitters of information.
Building on the foundation of thoughtful design, the second theme—Technological Competence and Innovation
Culture—highlights the essential role of digital skills and adaptability in education. Many participants in the
study consistently referred to digital literacy as a “basic requirement” for teachers, underscoring that it is a
fundamental skill rather than a supplementary one. They recognised that true innovation in education hinges on
the confident and strategic use of digital tools, a sentiment echoed in the literature, which emphasises the
necessity of supportive ecosystems for effective ICT integration in educational settings [56]. Participants also
stressed the importance of ongoing professional learning, stating that “teachers should always upgrade
themselves with new digital tools and methods because innovation happens when teachers keep learning.” This
perspective aligns with research by Moet and Kálmán, which illustrates how professional learning communities
can significantly enhance educators' development and promote student achievement through continuous
engagement [57].
However, the study also revealed barriers to innovation, such as time constraints, limited infrastructure, and
unequal access to training opportunities. These concerns emphasize that fostering a culture of sustainable
innovation is not solely the responsibility of individual educators; it also requires robust , institutional support
systems to ensure that teachers are adequately prepared and resourced [58]. The importance of this theme is
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further underscored by well-established frameworks such as Rogers' Diffusion of Innovation Theory, which
delineates how innovations proliferate through early adopters who can influence their peers, and the
DigCompEdu framework, which advocates for the ongoing professional development of educators that is
reflective of their digital practices [59]. Together, these frameworks support the idea that effective technology
integration necessitates not just competence but also a mindset of experimentation and lifelong learning.
The findings also resonate with the work of Jacobsen, et al. [60], who argue for a continued focus on developing
innovative educational practices within professional learning communities, nurturing an environment that
promotes collaboration and knowledge sharing, and enabling educators to become more adept at using
technology to enhance their students' learning experiences. Moreover, recognising professional learning as an
ongoing process is crucial, as emphasised by Kairat and Nurmukhanova [61]the need for sustained training,
practice, and feedback to empower teachers. Thus, embracing a culture of innovation that values continuous
improvement and adaptive learning can significantly influence the educational landscape.
Complementing the individual aspects of innovation, the third theme, Collaboration and Knowledge Sharing,
highlights how collective effort can fuel significant educational transformation. Many participants believed that
teachers should collaborate through peer networks and professional communities to sustain innovation. One
participant remarked, “When teachers share ideas and resources, innovation spreads faster—everyone benefits
when knowledge is shared.” This emphasis on collaboration reflects the established understanding that
knowledge sharing among educators enhances both individual and collective growth, as noted by Shadle, et al.
[62], who found that faculty interested in improving their teaching reported higher levels of engagement in
collaborative activities.
Moreover, collaboration was perceived not just as helpful but as essential for effective teaching practices. It
enables educators to co-create, test, and refine digital strategies, facilitating a learning environment where they
can learn from each other's successes and challenges. The findings resonate with the principles of Professional
Learning Communities (PLCs), which emphasise reflective dialogue and shared responsibility, ultimately
enhancing the quality of instruction, as noted by Affandi, et al. [63] those who suggest that effective PLCs
improve teachers' abilities to create supportive learning environments.
Through this lens, innovation is not solely an act of individual creativity but a social process driven by ongoing
conversation, shared objectives, and collective problem-solving. This perspective aligns with the existing
literature, which highlights that transformative change in education is best achieved through collaborative efforts
[64]. Furthermore, a systematic review Henderson, et al. [65] emphasises the need to build supportive networks
among educators to facilitate the dissemination of innovative practices in STEM education, underscoring the
effectiveness of collaborative approaches.
In essence, fostering a culture of collaboration and knowledge sharing among teachers not only accelerates the
diffusion of innovation but also helps establish a supportive community where educators can thrive. Encouraging
such collaborative dynamics enhances the overall educational landscape, leading to increased student success
through enriched learning experiences, as noted in Affandi, et al. [63] findings, which highlight the positive
impact of professional learning communities on student achievement.
Across all three themes, participants conceptualized teachers as active contributors to digital transformation,
rather than passive users of educational technology. This perspective is crucial, as it underscores the belief that
educators must proactively integrate technology into their practice. The themes collectively suggest an
interdependent model: technological competence provides the foundation, pedagogical creativity forms the core,
and collaboration ensures sustainability and scalability (Fig. 1). Research supports this assertion; for example,
Ata and Alpaslan [66] it was found that teachers' digital teaching competencies significantly empower students
in developing essential 21
st
-century skills through a collaborative approach.
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Fig. 1 Conceptual framework illustrating the relationship between design competence, technological
competence, and collaborative practice in shaping teacher innovation in digital learning.
This model reflects an evolving teacher identity—one that embraces design thinking, digital fluency, and
community engagement as integral components of effective teaching in the 21st century. By positioning
themselves as creative designers, tech-savvy practitioners, and collaborative learners, pre-service teachers
demonstrate a holistic vision of innovation in education. Esteve‐Mon, et al. [67] discuss the importance of
developing digital competencies among teachers, with a focus primarily on computational thinking and its
application in the classroom, which may indirectly enhance educators' innovative capacity.
The overlapping region of the three circles—technological competence, design and creativity, and
collaboration—represents a synergistic space where innovation, functionality, and human-centred values
converge. At this intersection, individuals or teams demonstrate functional creativity, which integrates technical
expertise with imaginative design thinking to produce solutions that are both original and practical. This
synthesis moves beyond mere artistic creativity by embedding utility, feasibility, and performance within the
creative process. As noted by Hidayat [68], effective utilisation of digital tools enables teachers to facilitate
engaging and innovative learning experiences, emphasising their role as facilitators in this context.
The convergence of technological competence and collaboration leads to technical alignment, emphasizing the
importance of shared digital literacy and coordinated understanding among collaborators. This ensures
interoperability and efficient collective problem-solving, facilitating communication in a common technological
language and the co-development of integrated systems or products. Özer and Kuloğlu [69] found that teachers’
perceptions of 21
st
-century skills significantly predict their reflective practices, which are crucial for effective
collaboration in educational settings. Similarly, the overlap between collaboration and creativity underpins user-
driven design, in which solutions are shaped through participatory engagement and responsiveness to user needs.
At the core of all three domains lies the highest level of integrative practice—a space where technological
knowledge, creative insight, and collaborative engagement operate in harmony, as emphasised by Yakubov, who
argues that teachers' collaborative endeavours enhance the learning environment [70]. This central point
symbolizes a mature form of professional competence marked by adaptability, interdisciplinary fluency, and
reflective innovation. It is within this equilibrium that purposeful, functional, and user-responsive ideas are
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transformed into sustainable innovations, bridging the gap between what is technically possible, what is
creatively desirable, and what is socially meaningful.
While the discussion of findings draws primarily on the TPACK and SAMR frameworks, the themes also
resonate with broader theoretical perspectives. From the lens of Activity Theory, teachers’ innovation is
understood as emerging from social interaction and collective meaning-making within institutional systems.
Similarly, Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovation Theory highlights the role of early adopters in shaping innovation
culture through collaboration and modelling. Integrating these perspectives provides a richer account of how
technological, pedagogical, and socio-cultural factors converge to influence teachers’ creative agency in digital
learning environments.
In the context of Malaysian teacher education, these findings hold significant implications. The perspectives
shared by pre-service teachers align with national priorities outlined in Malaysia’s Digital Education Policy
(2021–2030), which emphasizes developing teachers who can effectively integrate technology into their teaching
practices. However, while these teachers express strong awareness of innovation, many still lack structured
opportunities to practice digital content design, peer collaboration, or classroom-based experimentation.
Strengthening these components within teacher training programs could better prepare them to meet the demands
of digital education. The findings indicate that pre-service teachers are ready to embrace their roles as designers
and innovators but require supportive ecosystems that include mentoring, collaboration, and access to
appropriate tools.
This study explored how pre-service teachers conceptualise the teacher’s role in digital innovation, particularly
in designing digital learning materials. The thematic analysis of 42 reflections revealed three interrelated themes:
teachers as creative designers of digital learning materials, technological competence and innovation culture,
and collaboration and knowledge sharing. Collectively, these findings show that pre-service teachers perceive
teachers as active agents of change who integrate technology with pedagogy to create meaningful and engaging
learning experiences. Practical digital innovation, in their view, depends on teachers’ capacity to design
purposeful resources, maintain reflective technological competence, and participate in collaborative
communities that sustain professional growth. These dimensions are mutually reinforcing and together shape a
forward-looking teacher identity grounded in creativity, adaptability, and collective learning. The study
underscores the need for teacher education programmes to cultivate these attributes through authentic design
practice, continuous professional development, and institutional cultures that value experimentation and
collaboration. Strengthening these elements within teacher education programmes will not only enhance digital
competence but also cultivate reflective and ethically aware educators capable of navigating emerging
technologies such as generative AI. The study contributes a conceptual framework that links creative design,
technological adaptability, and collaborative practice as interdependent dimensions of teacher innovation by
offering a foundation for future pedagogical and policy development in digitally mediated education.
This study was limited to a single institutional site and relied solely on written reflections as the data source.
Although this approach provided valuable insights into participants’ self-perceptions, the absence of triangulated
evidence such as interviews, digital artefacts, or classroom observations constrains the depth of interpretation.
Future research could adopt a longitudinal design to trace changes in pre-service teachers’ digital innovation
practices over time, or expand the scope to include multiple institutions for comparative analysis. Incorporating
mixed methods and multimodal data sources would enrich the understanding of how teachers’ digital competence
and innovation evolve across professional contexts.
This study was supported by research grant Geran Galakan Penyelidik Muda (GGPM-2024-080) titled
“Designing STEM E-Modules: A Framework for Nurturing Global STEM Competencies” and my STEM-up
research group.
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