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The development of modern education demands a holistic approach to understanding and nurturing the potential
of gifted and talented students. This study synthesizes the intellectual perspectives of two prominent Islamic
scholars, Imam al-Ghazali and Ibn Khaldun, to formulate the characteristics of gifted and talented learners from
an Islamic epistemological standpoint. Al-Ghazali emphasizes the integration of knowledge, ethics, and
spirituality, whereas Ibn Khaldun focuses on intellect, social experience, and structured stages of education.
Through this synthesis approach, the study identifies six key characteristics of gifted learners according to
Islamic thought: intellectual and spiritual intelligence, sincerity of intention, noble character, the ability to
comprehend social and historical issues, critical and creative thinking, and progressive lifelong learning. The
synthesis culminates in a conceptual framework comprising three dimensions spiritual (ruhaniyyah), intellectual
(‘aqliyyah), and socio-ethical (akhlaqiyyah) which not only complements Western cognitive-based models but
also provides valuable guidance for developing Islamic value-oriented gifted education systems in Malaysia and
the broader Muslim world.
Gifted and Talented Students, al-Ghazali, Ibn Khaldun, Critical Thinking.
The development of contemporary education has increasingly emphasized gifted and talented students as vital
assets for shaping a nation’s future. Students in this category generally possess high intellectual ability,
exceptional creativity, and heightened emotional and moral sensitivity compared to their peers (Subhi et al.,
2020). Therefore, understanding their characteristics comprehensively is fundamental to designing an
educational system that aligns with their potential and needs.
In general, modern studies on gifted and talented learners have been pioneered by Western scholars such as
Howard Gardner (1983) with his Theory of Multiple Intelligences, Joseph Renzulli (2005) with the Three-Ring
Conception of Giftedness, and Gagné (2008) who introduced the Differentiated Model of Giftedness and Talent
(DMGT). These scholars emphasize cognitive ability, creativity, task commitment, and environmental factors as
key characteristics of gifted learners. However, the present study seeks to explore and synthesize the ideas of
two eminent Islamic scholars Imam al-Ghazali and Ibn Khaldun—in identifying the characteristics of gifted
students from a holistic and value-based Islamic epistemological perspective.
Imam al-Ghazali (1058–1111 CE), through his works such as Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din and Ayyuha al-Walad,
underscores the importance of integrating knowledge, ethics, and spirituality in education. He asserts that
intellectual intelligence alone is insufficient; it must be accompanied by spiritual purification (tazkiyat al-nafs)
and the cultivation of proper conduct (adab) (al-Ghazali, 2005). Meanwhile, Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406 CE), in
his Muqaddimah, highlights reason as a means to comprehend social and historical phenomena and positions
education as the foundation of civilization. He outlines the principles of gradual learning (ta‘wid), experiential
understanding, and the integration of revealed (naqli) and rational (‘aqli) sciences as essential foundations for
student excellence (Ibn Khaldun, 2002).
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Both scholars offer holistic insights into human and learner development. However, limited research has
systematically organized and synthesized their thoughts specifically to identify the characteristics of gifted and
talented students. Therefore, this study aims to present a synthesis of al-Ghazali’s and Ibn Khaldun’s intellectual
perspectives in identifying the main characteristics of gifted and talented learners based on classical Islamic
thought, while assessing their relevance within contemporary educational contexts.
Gifted and talented students refer to individuals who demonstrate exceptional abilities in one or more domains
such as cognitive, creative, leadership, artistic, or academic performance (Sternberg & Davidson, 2005). In the
educational context, identifying gifted and talented learners is crucial to ensuring that they receive educational
experiences aligned with their unique potential and developmental needs.
According to Davis, Rimm, and Siegle (2011), gifted and talented students often exhibit a deep interest in
knowledge, a high level of concentration, critical thinking skills, and intellectual maturity in reasoning and
decision-making. They also display strong intrinsic motivation and the ability to solve problems creatively and
innovatively. Hence, educational approaches should be flexible, student-centered, and designed to accommodate
multiple forms of potential and excellence.
A variety of modern theories have been developed to understand intelligence and talent. Among the most
influential are the following:
Gardner introduced the Multiple Intelligences Theory, which proposes that intelligence is not limited to linguistic
and logical-mathematical abilities, but encompasses at least eight distinct forms of intelligence, including
musical, bodily-kinesthetic, visual-spatial, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic intelligences. This theory
broadened the scope of educational recognition by validating diverse forms of student excellence (Gardner,
1983).
Renzulli proposed that gifted individuals exhibit a combination of three key traits: above-average ability,
creativity, and task commitment. His model emphasizes that giftedness is not solely based on IQ but also involves
intrinsic motivation and innovative capability (Renzulli, 2005).
Gagné distinguished between natural abilities (gifts) and systematically developed skills (talents), highlighting
the mediating roles of motivation, environment, and training in transforming potential into outstanding
performance (Gagné, 2008).
Classical Islamic scholars such as al-Ghazali and Ibn Khaldun have long articulated profound views on education
and human development. Al-Ghazali emphasized the integration of knowledge, ethics, and spirituality as the
foundation of true education (al-Ghazali, 2005). According to him, the ultimate purpose of learning is to draw
closer to Allah and to cultivate a balanced individual in intellect, heart, and action.
Meanwhile, Ibn Khaldun underscored the role of education in shaping civilization through a gradual and
experiential process of learning. He criticized rote memorization without understanding and advocated for a
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pedagogical approach that develops analytical ability, moral character, and intellectual discipline (Ibn Khaldun,
2002). Both scholars shared a concern for the holistic formation of learners intellectually, ethically, and socially.
Synthesizing the ideas of classical Islamic scholars is essential to reviving the intellectual heritage of Islam in
addressing the challenges of modern education. In the context of gifted and talented education, such synthesis
provides an added dimension that is spiritual, ethical, and holistic elements often overlooked in modern models
that focus primarily on cognitive aspects (Al-Attas, 1993).
Moreover, this synthesis situates gifted education within the framework of insan kamil the ideal, well-balanced
human being encompassing intellectual, emotional, spiritual, and social dimensions consistent with the aims of
Islamic education (Rosnani, 2007). It also contributes to the development of alternative models that are relevant
and contextualized to Malaysia and the broader Islamic world.
This study employs a qualitative design utilizing content analysis and conceptual synthesis. This design enables
an in-depth exploration, interpretation, and systematic reconstruction of classical Islamic ideas to form a new
conceptual framework. The study adopts a library-based research approach, which is appropriate for
investigating the intellectual contributions of classical scholars. The analysis focuses on the primary texts of
Imam al-Ghazali, such as Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din, Ayyuha al-Walad, and al-Munqidh min al-Dalal, as well as Ibn
Khaldun’s seminal work, al-Muqaddimah. These primary sources are supported by secondary references from
academic journals, scholarly books, and dissertations on Islamic educational thought and modern theories of
giftedness.
A synthesizing approach is employed to integrate the essential educational elements of al-Ghazali’s and Ibn
Khaldun’s thought, producing a comprehensive understanding of the characteristics of gifted and talented
students from an Islamic perspective. This approach is justified as both scholars represent complementary
educational philosophies—al-Ghazali emphasizes the spiritual and ethical dimensions, whereas Ibn Khaldun
stresses rational and social development. The synthesis enables the integration of the spiritual (ruhaniyyah),
intellectual (‘aqliyyah), and socio-ethical dimensions, thereby proposing an Islamic value-based gifted education
model (Al-Attas, 1993; Rosnani, 2007).
This study relies on two main sources of data:
(a) Primary Sources
1. Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din, Ayyuha al-Walad, and al-Munqidh min al-Dalal by Imam al-Ghazali.
2. al-Muqaddimah by Ibn Khaldun.
(b) Secondary Sources
1. Foundational works such as The Concept of Education in Islam (Al-Attas, 1980), Knowledge and the
Sacred (Nasr, 1984), and Reclaiming the Conversation (Rosnani, 2007).
2. Academic articles including Studi Komparasi Konsep Pendidikan Islam al-Ghazali dan Ibn Khaldun
(Zuliarti, 2015) and Ibn Khaldun in Contemporary Education Discourse (Che Husna, 2009).
3. Recent proceedings and dissertations related to Islamic education and gifted learners (Basir et al., 2023;
Ma’zumi et al., 2023).
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Data were collected through documentary analysis of classical and secondary sources. The study employed
hermeneutic reading techniques, interpreting texts in light of their historical, linguistic, and philosophical
contexts. To ensure textual accuracy, original Arabic references were consulted where necessary, particularly for
core terms such as ‘aql (intellect), tazkiyah al-nafs (purification of the soul), and ta‘wid (gradual training).
Educational concepts, values, and character traits were systematically extracted and organized into thematic
categories.
Data analysis was conducted through thematic analysis and comparative analysis of scholars’ ideas. The process
involved three main stages:
1. Initial Coding: Identifying core concepts in the texts such as intellect, ethics, tazkiyah, ta‘wid, and insan
kamil.
2. Theme Extraction: Categorizing these concepts into overarching themes—spiritual (ruhaniyyah),
intellectual (‘aqliyyah), and socio-ethical (akhlaqiyyah).
3. Conceptual Synthesis: Integrating the themes from both scholars to construct a new conceptual
framework describing the characteristics of gifted learners from an Islamic perspective.
This analytical process allows for a systematic integration of classical Islamic thought with contemporary
educational paradigms.
To ensure validity and reliability, several strategies were implemented:
1. Source Triangulation: Cross-examining multiple scholarly interpretations of al-Ghazali’s and Ibn
Khaldun’s thought to avoid interpretive bias (Rosenthal, 1967; Osman Bakar, 1999).
2. Expert Validation: Consulting two experts in Islamic education and philosophy to confirm the accuracy
of concepts and Arabic terminologies.
3. Audit Trail: Documenting every stage of data collection and analysis to ensure transparency and
replicability.
The methodology produced a conceptual synthesis framework comprising three principal dimensions:
1. Ruhaniyyah (Spiritual): Encompassing sincerity, intention, and purification of the soul.
2. ‘Aqliyyah (Intellectual): Encompassing critical reasoning, creativity, and analytical capacity.
3. Sosial-Akhlak (Socio-Ethical): Encompassing social responsibility, ethical conduct, and moral integrity.
This framework serves as the foundation for subsequent discussions on the applicability of al-Ghazali’s and Ibn
Khaldun’s thought in contemporary gifted education.
The synthesizing approach in the study of intellectual figures refers to the effort of integrating the ideas or
viewpoints of two or more scholars to form a new and more comprehensive understanding or concept. This
synthesis involves comparison, integration of key elements, and critical reasoning concerning the context and
application of the scholars’ ideas. In this study, the synthesis focuses on two eminent Islamic thinkers Imam
alGhazali and Ibn Khaldun in understanding the characteristics of gifted and talented students from an Islamic
intellectual perspective.
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This approach is essential for revitalizing the intellectual legacy of classical Islamic thought within the
framework of modern education, as emphasized by al-Attas (1993) and Rosnani (2007). It enables the researcher
to construct an integrative conceptual framework that unites intellectual, spiritual, ethical, and social dimensions
elements often separated in secular modern paradigms.
Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali was born in 1058 CE in Tus, Persia. Known as Hujjat al-Islam (“The Proof
of Islam”), he is one of the most renowned Muslim scholars in the fields of philosophy, theology, jurisprudence,
and Sufism. His major works include Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din, al-Munqidh min al-Dalal, and Ayyuha al-Walad
(alGhazali, 2005).
Abd al-Rahman Ibn Khaldun was born in 1332 CE in Tunis. He is a distinguished Muslim scholar celebrated for
his contributions to history, sociology, and education. His magnum opus, al-Muqaddimah, contains profound
insights on human formation, civilization, and knowledge (Ibn Khaldun, 2002).
Al-Ghazali emphasized that the ultimate aim of education is to draw nearer to Allah and to develop a balanced
individual intellectually, spiritually, and morally (al-Ghazali, 2005; Nasr, 1984). Education, in his view, must
cultivate beneficial knowledge, strengthen moral discipline (adab), and purify the soul (tazkiyat al-nafs). He
distinguishes between praiseworthy and blameworthy knowledge, highlighting the importance of pure intention
and ethical practice in learning (Hashim, 2004).
According to al-Ghazali, the ideal student exhibits sincerity, determination (himmah), noble character, and a deep
yearning for knowledge that leads to truth and ultimate happiness in the hereafter (al-Attas, 1993; alGhazali,
2005).
Ibn Khaldun viewed education as the foundation of civilization and social well-being (Ibn Khaldun, 2002). He
introduced the concept of ta‘wid (gradual training) and criticized teaching methods that relied excessively on
rote memorization without comprehension (Al-Attas, 1993; Rosenthal, 1967). He also emphasized the
integration of rational (‘aqli) and revealed (naqli) knowledge as the basis of balanced education.
The characteristics of learners, according to Ibn Khaldun, include critical thinking, intellectual depth, curiosity,
and the ability to comprehend social and historical realities (Che Husna, 2009; Hassan Langgulung, 1991).
Both scholars underscore the balance between intellect and spirituality in education. Al-Ghazali focuses
primarily on the spiritual and ethical formation of the individual, whereas Ibn Khaldun highlights the sociological
and civilizational functions of education. Despite these differing emphases, both agree that education should not
be utilitarian in nature; rather, it must cultivate adab (proper conduct) and prepare individuals to serve as moral
agents within society (Rosnani, 2007; Wan Mohd Nor, 1991).
Based on the synthesis of al-Ghazali’s and Ibn Khaldun’s thought, the formation of gifted and talented students
within Islamic education should not focus solely on cognitive development but also encompass spiritual, ethical,
and social dimensions. This approach aligns with the philosophy of Islamic education, which emphasizes the
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harmony between ‘aql (intellect), qalb (heart), and ruh (soul) in cultivating the insan kamil the complete and
balanced human being (Al-Attas, 1980; Rosnani, 2007).
Both thinkers acknowledge that reason (‘aql) is the most important gift distinguishing humans from animals.
AlGhazali describes intellect as the means to comprehend knowledge and recognize God (al-Ghazali, 2005). He
asserts that students must refine their intellectual capacity through deep study and disciplined intellectual
training. Ibn Khaldun regards reason as the foundation of civilization, emphasizing analytical thinking and
understanding of social and historical realities as essential traits of excellent learners (Ibn Khaldun, 2002; Che
Husna, 2009).
For al-Ghazali, sincerity (ikhlas) and purity of intention are key to attaining blessed and meaningful education.
Knowledge pursued without righteous intention leads to spiritual corruption (al-Ghazali, 1998). Hence, gifted
students must not only possess intellectual superiority but also internalize that knowledge is a path toward divine
pleasure. Ibn Khaldun also underscores the significance of intention and learning attitudes, although he focuses
more on the social and practical aspects of knowledge (Ibn Khaldun, 2002).
Al-Ghazali views education as a process of tazkiyat al-nafs (spiritual purification) that produces virtuous
individuals close to Allah (Nasr, 1984). Moral excellence is not only a key characteristic of gifted learners but
also the ultimate goal of education. Thus, a gifted student, in al-Ghazali’s view, must embody humility (tawadhu
‘), honesty, and integrity in acquiring and disseminating knowledge. Ibn Khaldun likewise emphasizes the role
of moral training and ethical discipline as essential foundations for social sustainability (Rosenthal, 1967).
Ibn Khaldun identifies the ability to understand ‘umran (social structure) and historical processes as a core
characteristic of excellent students. Through the study of history and sociology, learners can analyze patterns of
civilizational rise and decline and derive lessons from the past (Ibn Khaldun, 2002). This suggests that gifted
learners should not only excel academically but also possess social awareness and foresight for the future of the
ummah (Che Husna, 2009; Zarkasyi, 2010).
Al-Ghazali encourages the use of reason to evaluate arguments, challenge falsehoods, and pursue truth through
profound intellectual reflection (al-Ghazali, 2005). Ibn Khaldun criticizes educational systems that prioritize
memorization over comprehension and critical reasoning (Rosnani, 2007). Therefore, gifted students, according
to both scholars, should master the art of critical inquiry, independent thinking, and creative problem-solving.
Ibn Khaldun introduces the concept of ta‘wida process of gradual, systematic, and repetitive learning. Excellent
students should progress through structured stages of mastery without haste (Ibn Khaldun, 2002). Al-Ghazali
similarly stresses istiqamah (consistency) in learning students must persevere patiently and pursue knowledge
with dedication (al-Ghazali, 1998). Both scholars regard education as a lifelong journey requiring discipline and
sustained commitment.
This synthesis reveals that al-Ghazali’s and Ibn Khaldun’s ideas collectively form a holistic conceptual
framework for gifted education grounded in balance between intellect and spirituality, individual ethics and
social responsibility, cognition and character.
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Imam al-Ghazali emphasizes that intellectual intelligence (‘aql) and spiritual intelligence (qalb) are two
interrelated elements essential to the formation of a complete individual. He asserts that the intellect serves as a
tool for acquiring knowledge and understanding God, whereas the heart functions as the spiritual center that
guides the intellect toward truth. In the context of gifted and talented students, maintaining a balance between
intellectual and spiritual intelligence is crucial to ensure that the knowledge acquired brings both benefit and
divine blessing (al-Ghazali, 2005).
Al-Ghazali stresses that knowledge without morality is futile and can lead to destruction. He insists that the
ultimate purpose of seeking knowledge is to draw closer to Allah and to cultivate virtuous character. Therefore,
gifted and talented students must ensure that the knowledge they acquire is applied ethically and contributes to
the betterment of society (al-Ghazali, 1998).
Himmah
The concept of himmah refers to a high aspiration and strong determination in the pursuit of knowledge.
AlGhazali highlights that students must possess a deep enthusiasm for learning and should not give up easily in
their intellectual endeavors. Such diligence and perseverance are key to achieving both excellence and divine
blessing in one’s educational journey (al-Ghazali, 2005).
Al-Ghazali also emphasizes that students must develop a heightened sensitivity to moral values and truth. This
includes the ability to distinguish between right and wrong, and the commitment to uphold truth even in the face
of challenges. Such sensitivity represents a sign of elevated spiritual intelligence and is vital in forming
individuals of integrity and moral strength (al-Ghazali, 1998).
Ibn Khaldun emphasizes that the intellect (‘aql) is the fundamental basis for the intellectual development of
individuals and the progress of society. He asserts that rational thinking enables human beings to understand
natural and social phenomena, which in turn facilitates the establishment of advanced civilizations (Ibn Khaldun,
2005). In the context of gifted and talented learners, the emphasis on intellectual cultivation is crucial to
producing individuals capable of contributing effectively to societal advancement.
According to Ibn Khaldun, education plays a central role in the construction and sustainability of civilization.
He maintains that the quality of education determines the level of a society’s progress. High-quality education
produces knowledgeable and ethical individuals who serve as catalysts for civilizational growth (Ibn Khaldun,
2005). Therefore, gifted and talented students must be provided with a comprehensive and value-based education
to ensure their intellectual abilities translate into meaningful contributions to their communities and nations.
Ibn Khaldun introduces the concept of ta‘wid, which refers to a gradual and continuous approach to learning. He
emphasizes that mastery of knowledge requires a systematic process and consistent practice. Students must
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progress through well-structured stages of learning to achieve deep understanding in any field (Ibn Khaldun,
2005). This approach is vital for shaping gifted and talented learners who possess both strong intellectual
discipline and solid mastery of their knowledge domains.
Ibn Khaldun highlights the importance of integrating naqli (revealed) and ‘aqli (rational) knowledge. He argues
that a balance between these two forms of knowledge is essential for attaining holistic and comprehensive
understanding. Gifted and talented learners should be educated to appreciate and master both types of knowledge
so that they can think critically, act ethically, and contribute wisely to the moral and intellectual growth of society
(Ibn Khaldun, 2005).
The educational philosophies of al-Ghazali and Ibn Khaldun each offer distinct yet complementary perspectives
in defining students’ intelligence and giftedness. Al-Ghazali emphasizes the importance of balance between
intellect, spirituality, and morality in shaping a learned and virtuous individual. He views knowledge as a process
of tazkiyah al-nafs (purification of the soul), to be pursued with sincerity (ikhlas) and proper moral conduct
(adab) (Zuliarti, 2015).
In contrast, Ibn Khaldun focuses on the cultivation of intellect through experience and observation of social and
historical realities. He associates intelligence with one’s ability to comprehend societal change and exercise
critical and reflective reasoning (Khumaidah & Hidayati, 2021).
The synthesis of both scholars’ ideas produces a comprehensive framework of Islamic giftedness, encompassing
the following core characteristics:
1. Balance between intellect and spirituality, grounded in the tawhidic (monotheistic) purpose of education
(Ma’zumi et al., 2023).
2. Depth, analytical reasoning, and reflective thinking, as highlighted in al-Ghazali’s emphasis on
muraqabah (self-vigilance) and tafakkur (contemplation).
3. Social awareness and noble ethics, aligned with Ibn Khaldun’s view of education as a tool for
civilizational development (Basir et al., 2023).
Based on the synthesis of both thinkers, this study proposes a conceptual framework consisting of three
interrelated components:
1. Spiritual Dimension (Ruhaniyyah): Encompasses sincerity of intention, spiritual awareness, and ethical
behavior grounded in Islamic values. This reflects al-Ghazali’s view of education as a process directed
toward seeking Allah’s pleasure.
2. Intellectual Dimension (‘Aqliyyah): Refers to students’ cognitive abilities, including critical, creative, and
analytical thinking. Ibn Khaldun perceives education as an instrument for cultivating understanding of
the empirical and social world.
3. Socio-Ethical Dimension (Sosial-Akhlak): Represents social responsibility, compassion, and active
involvement in community development, aligning with the Islamic vision of holistic human formation
(Basir et al., 2023; Zuliarti, 2015).
This framework embodies a holistic and balanced educational philosophy that integrates both intellect and
spirituality, in accordance with the maqasid al-tarbiyyah al-Islamiyyah (objectives of Islamic education).
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Modern educational models, such as Renzulli’s Three-Ring Conception of Giftedness and Gagné’s Differentiated
Model of Giftedness and Talent (DMGT), emphasize cognitive ability, creativity, and environmental influences.
Although these models address intellectual potential, they generally neglect the spiritual and moral dimensions
that are central to Islamic education (Ma’zumi et al., 2023).
Nevertheless, integration between modern and Islamic approaches can produce a more balanced gifted education
model:
1. The Western model contributes to structural, pedagogical, and psychometric aspects of curriculum design
and talent assessment.
2. The Islamic model emphasizes values, spirituality, and identity formation, ensuring that intellectual
excellence is guided by moral consciousness (Khumaidah & Hidayati, 2021).
Thus, this synthesis offers a comprehensive framework that unites intellectual rigor with ethical and spiritual
grounding in the education of gifted students.
The synthesis of al-Ghazali’s and Ibn Khaldun’s thought has significant implications for gifted education in
Malaysia and the broader Muslim world:
1. Holistic curriculum design integrating cognitive, spiritual, and social components should be implemented
in elite schools, MRSM institutions, and specialized centers such as Kolej Permata Insan.
2. Development of Islamic-based gifted modules, including those on tazkiyah al-nafs (soul purification),
adab al-ta‘allum (ethics of learning), and critical-reflective thinking.
3. Teacher training for gifted education, enabling educators to effectively apply Islamic pedagogical
principles in the teaching process (Zuliarti, 2015; Basir et al., 2023).
4. Further research initiatives to develop a systematic Islamic gifted education model adaptable to national
and international educational contexts.
This study reaffirms that the education of gifted and talented students must not be narrowly confined to
intellectual measurement alone. Through the synthesis of Imam al-Ghazali’s and Ibn Khaldun’s educational
thought, it becomes evident that the true characteristics of gifted learners in the Islamic framework encompass a
balance between intellectual intelligence, spiritual maturity, moral excellence, social awareness, and critical
reflective reasoning.
Al-Ghazali emphasizes the development of the soul (tazkiyah al-nafs), proper moral conduct (adab), and
sincerity of intention (ikhlas) in the pursuit of knowledge, while Ibn Khaldun highlights rationality, social reality,
and the need for structured and systematic education. The integration of these perspectives yields a holistic model
of gifted Islamic learners who are intellectually sharp, spiritually grounded, and socially responsible.
This model not only complements existing Western-oriented gifted education frameworks that focus primarily
on cognitive abilities but also provides a robust foundation for the design of curricula and modules that are
relevant to the context of contemporary Islamic education. Consequently, the study underscores the importance
of continuously exploring and integrating the intellectual legacies of classical Islamic scholars into modern
educational systems particularly in Malaysia and across the Muslim world to produce insan kamil (the complete
human being) who excels not only in knowledge but also in ethics, spirituality, and social engagement.
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