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ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XXVI October 2025 | Special Issue on Education

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The Role of Relational and Motivational Traits of Transformational

School Leaders on Learners’ Academic Performance: A Pragmatic

Approach

Gladys Matandiko

, Farrelli Hambulo

, Mwansa Mukalula Kalumbi

PhD, Adam Daka

PhD, Researcher and Educational Coach, IDE, University of Zambia.

PhD, Lecturer, University of Zambia, School of Education,

Department of Education Administration and Policy Studies

PhD Candidate, IDE, University of Zambia.

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.903SEDU0671

Received: 02 November 2025; Accepted: 08 November 2025; Published: 17 November 2025

ABSTRACT

Previous studies, in various settings, have shown that Transformational leaders are more effective, higher

performers, more promotable, and more interpersonally sensitive (Rubin, Munz, & Bommer, 2005), quoted in

(Ogola & Sikalieh, 2017). This study examines the extent to which transformational leadership practices,

among headteachers in Central Province, Zambia, particularly how relational and motivational traits affect

learners’ academic performance in secondary schools. Using a convergent parallel mixed-methods design, the

research combined quantitative data from the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire with qualitative insights

from open-ended teacher responses to the questionnaire during data analysis. The study used a sample of 309,

arrived at, after randomized sampling and purposive sampling. Multiple linear regression analysis revealed that

two dimensions, Individualised Consideration (β = 0.220, p = 0.041) and Inspirational Motivation (β = 0.358, p

= 0.040), were statistically significant predictors of learner academic performance. These findings suggest that

headteachers who demonstrate empathy, personal attention, and motivational engagement positively impact

academic outcomes. Qualitative data reinforced these results, with teachers expressing admiration for

headteachers’ commitment, inclusivity, and ability to inspire unity. Divergent views came from other

dimensions of Intellectual Stimulation and Idealised Influence that showed no significant effect and were

associated with mixed perceptions, including hesitancy in decision-making and resistance to change. The study

concluded that relational and motivational leadership traits were most influential in enhancing learner

performance. The findings underscore the pedagogical and systemic value of leadership styles that empathise,

encourage, and offer individualised support. The study implications are discussed.

Keyterms: Transformational leadership Theory, personalised mentorship, visionary influence, and emotional

intelligence.

INTRODUCTION

Leadership in education plays a pivotal role in shaping the academic trajectories of learners, particularly in

contexts marked by resource constraints, systemic inequities, and evolving pedagogical demands. There is

unprecedented global interest in the question of how educational leaders influence change and improve student

learning outcomes. (Cormack et al., 2025). By focusing on types of leadership rather than as a unitary

construct, we realise that leaders’ impact on student outcomes depends, to a certain extent, on the particular

leadership practices in which they engage (Shava, 2021). In Sub-Saharan Africa, and Zambia in particular, the

effectiveness of school leadership has become increasingly central to educational reform efforts aimed at

improving learner outcomes and narrowing achievement gaps. Among the various leadership paradigms,

transformational leadership has garnered significant attention for its potential to inspire, motivate, and elevate

both staff and students toward shared goals of academic excellence (Ahmad, 2021).

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Transformational leadership, as conceptualised by Bass and Avolio (1994), comprises four interrelated

dimensions: idealised influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration.

Within the school environment, headteachers who embody these traits are positioned not merely as

administrators but as catalysts for change, fostering inclusive, emotionally intelligent, and performance-driven

cultures. Of particular relevance to this study are the dimensions of individual consideration, which emphasise

personalised support and mentorship, and inspirational motivation, which involves articulating a compelling

vision and instilling optimism among stakeholders.

Empirical evidence from various African contexts suggests that transformational leadership positively

correlates with improved academic performance, enhanced teacher efficacy, and greater learner engagement

(Bulle, Muindu & Mumo, 2025; Boateng, 2021; Jebii, 2019; Bett, 2018). However, despite the hypothesised

leadership-learner performance relationship by several researchers, current findings are inconclusive and

difficult to interpret considering transformational leadership’s width and breadth; hence, unanswered questions

remain. Therefore, the identified gap was the quest for the current study to assess exactly how two dimensions

of this leadership style, inspirational motivation and individualised consideration, fare in secondary school

transformational leadership, especially in semi-urban districts such as Kabwe. This gap is particularly salient

given the socio-economic and infrastructural challenges that characterise many schools in the region.

This study seeks to address this gap by investigating the influence of headteachers’ transformational leadership

practices, specifically individual consideration and inspirational motivation, on learners’ academic

performance in secondary schools within Kabwe District, Central Province, Zambia. The pragmatic approach

adds depth to the understanding of the influence of the two leadership traits.

LITERATURE REVIEWED

Transformational leadership continues to gain traction in African educational contexts, where school leaders

face systemic challenges of resource constraints, teacher shortages, and socio-economic disparities (Berkovich,

2016). Recent studies affirm the relevance of Bass and Avolio’s framework in these settings, particularly the

dimensions of individual consideration and inspirational motivation.

In Kenya, Bulle, Muindu, and Mumo (2025) found that principals who practised transformational leadership

significantly improved student academic performance in public secondary schools in Ijara Sub-County. Their

study emphasised the importance of inspirational motivation in fostering teacher commitment and learner

engagement, with a strong positive correlation between leadership style and academic outcomes (r = 0.726, p <

0.05) (Bulle, 2025).

In Uganda, Sengendo (2023) explored transformational leadership in secondary schools and concluded that

headteachers who demonstrated individualised support and visionary leadership created more inclusive and

high-performing learning environments. His doctoral research highlighted the role of emotional intelligence

and mentorship in enhancing learner resilience and academic focus (Sengendo, 2023).

Osagie & Momoh (2015) found a significant relationship between transformational leadership and students’

performance in the senior secondary certificate examination in Edo State in Nigeria. Another study conducted

by Boateng (2021), where the goal of the study was to note the influence of school head teachers’ leadership

styles on students' academic achievement in a sample of chosen primary schools in the Ahafo-Ano South

region. The study found that democratic and transformational leadership were the main styles of leadership

that head teachers employed to ensure improvement in the academic performance of students, as they gave

room for followers (students and teachers) to express themselves and encouraged them to go beyond their self-

interest and embrace the school's established objectives.

Shava (2021) examined the integration of instructional and transformational leadership in South African

schools. His findings revealed that combining visionary leadership with pedagogical support led to a stronger

culture of teaching and learning, ultimately boosting school performance. The study underscored the value of

inspirational motivation in shaping school climate and learner attitudes (Shava, 2021).

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Balyer (2021) defined school transformational leadership as a type of leadership that concentrated on

inspiration, motivation and empowered educators and learners to achieve a shared vision of excellence and

innovation. Barth-Farkas & Vera (2014) observed that transformational leaders created a vision for their

followers and guided the change through inspiration and motivation. They were excellent role models, and

their followers emulated many of their actions. They also inspired them through activating follower self-

efficacy to believe that they can go beyond expectations.

Bass (2018) indicated that individualised consideration had two main dimensions. The first was treating

followers individually, including paying attention to those who seemed neglected. The second was identifying

individuals’ weaknesses and strengths and facilitating their development and growth. A recent study by Mark

et. al. (2025) assessed the relationship between individualised consideration and Succession management in

the public sector in Kenya. The study concluded that individualised consideration had a notable and positive

connection with succession management.

These regional studies reinforce the applicability of transformational leadership theory in the African context

and support the hypothesis that headteachers’ personalised and motivational practices can positively influence

academic achievement. They also provide empirical grounding for the study in Kabwe District, Zambia, where

similar leadership dynamics could be at play.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This study is anchored on Transformational Leadership Theory, developed by Bass and Avolio (1994). The

theory posits that transformational leaders elevate the motivation, morale, and performance of followers

through four key dimensions: idealised influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and

individual consideration. For this study, emphasis is placed on two dimensions of individualised consideration

and inspirational motivation.

Individual Consideration refers to the leader’s ability to attend to individual needs, act as a mentor or coach,

and foster personal development. In the school context, headteachers who practice individual consideration are

likely to build stronger relationships with both staff and learners, leading to improved morale and academic

engagement.

Inspirational Motivation involves articulating a clear and compelling vision, setting high expectations, and

encouraging optimism. Headteachers who demonstrate inspirational motivation can galvanise staff and

learners toward shared academic goals, even in challenging environments.

By applying these constructs, the study seeks to understand how transformational leadership behaviours

manifest in Kabwe District secondary school head teachers and how they correlate with learners’ academic

performance. The framework provides a lens through which leadership practices can be analysed, interpreted,

and linked to educational outcomes.

METHODOLOGY

The study employed a convergent parallel mixed-methods design, integrating both quantitative and qualitative

data to examine the influence of headteachers’ transformational leadership styles using individualised

consideration and inspirational motivation, on learner academic performance (LAP) in the secondary schools

in Kabwe, Zambia. The design allowed for simultaneous collection and analysis of numeric data (MLQ scores

and LAP data, and textual data from teachers on their Head teachers, enabling a comprehensive understanding

of the relationship. This approach aligns with the theory’s emphasis on both behavioural outcomes and

relational dynamics.

Study Population and Sampling

The target population comprised headteachers and teachers from secondary schools in Central Province. The

sampling Technique used is the stratified randomisation sampling strategy to select a balanced mixture of

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schools with established leadership structures. Within these schools, purposive sampling was applied to select

teachers across departments to ensure representation. The quantitative strand included 48 teachers and 6 head

teachers. The population included headteachers, teachers, and learners, reflecting the multi-level influence of

transformational leadership. Simple random sampling selected learners to provide balanced perspectives. The

sample size was arrived at using the Taro Yamane (1967) formula to determine the sample size: n = N/ 1+

N(e)

. The Yamane formula helped the study to arrive at a sample size of 309, involving 255 learners and 48

teachers and 6 Headteachers.

Questionnaires for the teachers included Open-ended questions embedded in the MLQ survey that captured

teacher perceptions of headteacher leadership effectiveness. The Questions explored areas such as strengths,

barriers to effectiveness, and admired leadership traits. The APS assessed the learners' academic performance

among the 255 learners in the study.

The APS survey was used as a measurement tool for learner academic performance in the current study. Each

question answered was scored on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from SA- Strongly Agree, A- Agree, N-

neutral, D- Disagree and SD- Strongly Disagree. To score the scale, ‘strongly Agree’ is scored 5, ‘Agree’ is 4,

‘neutral’ is 3, ‘Disagree’ is 2 and ‘Strongly Disagree’ is 1. (See the appendices section for the APS scale

parameters.) Two hundred and forty-two learners completed the survey forms that were used for the study.

Content validity was ensured through the use of MLQ-5x items validated by several researchers.

Reliability was tested using Cronbach’s alpha, confirming the internal consistency of leadership scales.

Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis to test the relationship

between leadership dimensions and learner academic performance. Qualitative data were analysed

thematically, guided by the four pillars of transformational leadership, with emphasis on individual

consideration and inspirational motivation.

In line with Ethical Considerations, ethical clearance was obtained from relevant authorities. Participants gave

informed consent, and confidentiality was strictly maintained throughout the research process and after.

Data Analysis procedures

Quantitative data were analysed using multiple linear regression to determine the predictive relationship

between transformational leadership and its dimensions and LAP. Significance was assessed at the 0.05 level,

and standardised beta coefficients were used to interpret effect sizes.

Concurrently, Qualitative data were analysed using thematic analysis, following Braun and Clarke's (2006)

six-step framework, which indicates familiarisation with data, generating initial codes, searching for themes,

defining and naming themes, and integration with quantitative data. Manual coding techniques were used to

identify patterns related to leadership traits and contextual challenges.

Results

The highest number of student participants belonged to School 2-72 (29.8%), and the lowest belonged to

Schools 5 and 6, with 30 respondents each (12.4%).

Table 4.1 shows the Demographics of Learner Respondents

Variable

Frequency

Percentage (%)

Learner respondents/School

17.4

29.8

14.0

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14.0

12.4

Total

242

100

Response rate from Teachers

Table 4.2: Demographic Characteristics of Teacher Respondents

Variable: Teachers

Frequency

Percentage (%)

Gender: Male

48.1

Female

51.9

Education level: Bachelor’s

86.5

Master’s

13.5

Teaching Experience

3-9 years

67.3

10-16years

28.8

17-24 years

3.9

Religious (Catholics)

Yes

44.2

55.8

Demographics of Head teacher respondents

Furthermore, 5(83%) of the head teachers were female and only 1(17%) were male. Similarly, 5 (83%) of the

head teachers had Bachelor’s degrees and only 1(17%) had a Master’s degree.

Table 4.3: Shows Demographic Characteristics of Head Teacher Respondents

Variable: Head teachers

Frequencies

Gender

Male

17%

Female

83%

Education level

Bachelor’s

83%

Master’s

17%

Years of Experience

1-2 years

50%

13-18 years

50%

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Assessing Learner Academic Performance in the selected secondary schools in Kabwe District.

The Likert scale analysis was conducted using the variables of learner scores and learner academic

performance (LAP). The academic performance distribution in Table 4.4.2 showed a majority of learners, 127

(52.5%), falling in the "Excellent performance" category of scores in the range of 33-40, indicating strong

performance among the learners and the results also revealed that 104 (43%) of the learners were good

performers, suggesting a positive statistically significant learner academic performance. Furthermore, 11

(4.5%) learners had moderate performance, and there were no learners with low academic performance, as

evidenced by the scores in the Catholic secondary schools, which were targeted by the study.

Figure 4 shows the results of learner performance in the selected secondary schools in Kabwe district.

The Null Hypothesis Formulation

A null hypothesis was formulated to test for significance with a threshold set at α=0.05. This helped the

research meet the study objective through the hypothesis test.

‘Transformational leadership style does not significantly influence LAP in secondary schools in Kabwe.’

The hypothesis was tested inferentially using Regression and Bivariate analysis.

Multiple Linear Regression & Bivariate Analysis

To analyse the null hypothesis, Regression Analysis was employed at a 95% confidence level, as shown in

Table 4. Regression Analysis showed (See Table 4) that transformational leadership style had a positive and

statistically significant influence on learner academic performance (β= 0.294, CI= 0.035, 1.941, p=0.031).

Univariate analysis also showed a significant positive influence of transformational leadership style on

academic performance (β= 0.276, CI= 1.838, 0.008, p=0.042), at a 95% confidence interval. Hence, the

transformational leadership style positively influenced learner academic performance.

4.5

52.5

100

0-16 17-24 25-32 33-40 TOTAL

100

150

200

250

300

Performance Range

Percentages in Performance

LAP Using the APS

Perfomance in figures Series2 Performance in Percentage

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Table 4.2: Relationship between Transformational Leadership (TL) Styles and Learner Academic

Performance (LAP)

Variable

Univariate Analysis

Linear Regression

β Coef.

95% CI

p-value

β Coef.

95% CI

p-value

TL style

0.276*

1.838, 0.008

0.042

0.294*

0.035, 1.941

0.031

* Significant at p< 0.05 @ 95% confidence level

The Null hypothesis stated that ‘H

Transformational leadership style has no significant influence on learner

academic performance in secondary schools in Kabwe district, since the p-value associated with head teachers’

transformational leadership style was p=0.031, a value <0.05, the test significance level of 95%, the null

hypothesis is rejected. This output suggested that the head teachers’ transformational leadership style has a

statistically significant influence on Learner academic performance in the selected secondary schools in Kabwe

of Zambia’s Central Province.

Bivariate and Multiple Linear Regression Results on Transformational Leadership Dimensions

Bivariate and Multiple Linear Regression Analysis were employed to assess the influence of traits of

transformational leadership style on academic performance at a 95% Confidence level (See Table 4.3). The

analysis met the assumption of multicollinearity, given that the tolerance values ranged from 0.89 to 1.10,

while the variance inflation factor (VIF) ranged from 1.10 to 1.21, indicating that multicollinearity was not a

problem in this study. The Multiple Linear Regression Model was not significant, F (8,43) =1.663, p>0.05,

Adjusted R

=0.153, R

change

=0.061. Despite the non-significant overall model, the analysis showed that the

Individual Consideration sub-scale of transformational leadership style positively influenced learner academic

performance (β= 0.358, CI= 0.060,1.930, p=0.041).

Table 4.3: Shows the Relationship between Transformational Leadership Sub-Scales and Learner Academic

Performance (LAP)

Variable

Learner Academic Performance

Multiple Linear Regression Bivariate Analysis

Transformational

β Coef.

95% CI

p-value

β Coef.

95% CI

p-value

Dimensions:

Inspirational

Motivational

0.275

0.04, 1.660

0.049*

0.220

0.522,1.582

0.040*

Intellectual

stimulation

0.129

-1.060, 0.395

0.363

.262

-.411,1.765

0.217

Individual

Consideration

0.314

0.115,1.52

0.024*

0.358

0.060,1.930

0.041*

Idealised Influence

Attribute

0.205

-1.247,0.18

0.144

0.063

-1.013,1.341

0.781

Idealised Influence

Behaviour

0.223

0.11,-0.15

0.113

-.123

-1.642,0.871

0.540

Regression Model Summary

The transformational leadership style significantly influenced LAP. The analysis showed a non-significant

model summary F (3, 48) =1.449, p>0.05, Adjusted R

=0.026, ΔR

=0.083. However, despite the non-

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significant model, the transformational leadership style showed a positive influence on LAP with a 29.4%

variance.

Table 4.4 Model Summary

Model

Adjusted

Std. ε

Estimate

Change Statistics

ΔR

ΔF

df1

df2

Sig. ΔF

.288

.083

.026

.68205

.083

1.449

.240

a. Predictors: (Constant), Transformational Leadership Style and dimensions

Qualitative findings

Table 4.5 shows Qualitative themes from Teacher Perceptions

Transformational

Dimensions (Themes)

Qualitative

Alignment

Key Insights from Open-ended responses

Inspirational Motivation

Strong

Teachers admire the headteachers’ ability to inspire unity,

promote shared goals, and encourage positivity. Quotes

like ‘she brings people together’ and ‘He preaches about

unity’ reflect this.

Individual Consideration

Strong

Teachers noted her active listening, kindness, and inclusive

leadership: ‘She is an active listener’. ‘She helps teachers

who don’t know what they should do’. These affirm her

individualised support to staff.

Intellectual Stimulation

Partial

Some mentioned openness to ideas, ‘he is accommodating

to new ideas’, but others note hesitancy and fear of change:

“She appears afraid and slow in changing the school

system”.

Idealised influence

(Attribute & Behaviour)

weak

While some admire her integrity and confidence, others

highlight indecisiveness, fear of upsetting others, and lack

of assertiveness. This mixed perception may explain the

lack of statistical significance.

Integration of Quantitative and Qualitative Findings

The quantitative results of this study revealed that Individualised Consideration and Inspirational Motivation

were statistically significant predictors of learner academic performance (LAP), with β coefficients of 0.220

and 0.358, respectively. These findings were strongly reinforced by the qualitative data collected through

open-ended responses from teachers. Many respondents admired the headteachers’ ability to inspire unity,

promote shared goals, and show genuine concern for staff and learners, displaying the key traits of

inspirational motivation and individualized consideration. Phrases such as “bringing people together to achieve

a common goal”, “active listener”, and “commitment to duty” that came from the teachers reflect the lived

experiences of teachers and validate the statistical significance of these dimensions.

Conversely, dimensions such as Intellectual Stimulation and Idealised Influence did not show statistical

significance in the regression model. This was echoed in the qualitative responses, where teachers expressed

concerns about hesitancy in decision-making, fear of upsetting others, and resistance to change. Comments like

“she appears afraid and slow in changing the school system” and “He panics when things are not ready”

suggest that while these traits may not directly impact LAP in the current context, but could influence other

aspects of school climate or teacher morale. These integrated findings suggest that transformational leadership

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traits that emphasise relational and motivational engagement are more directly linked to academic outcomes in

secondary schools in Kabwe, Zambia. Meanwhile, traits associated with innovation and influence may require

further development or may be more relevant to other domains of school effectiveness, such as staff

satisfaction or organisational commitment.

DISCUSSION

The study rejected H

as its P-value<0.05. Therefore, the alternative Hypothesis was true. Which stated that

transformational leadership had a significant influence on LAP. The findings of this study correspond with the

findings of several researchers (Bulle, Muindu & Mumo, 2025; Boateng, 2021; Jebii, 2019; Bett, 2018; Osagie

& Momoh, 2015). Another study by Obama et al. (2015) found that the transformational leadership style

significantly affects the academic performance of secondary school students. Another study which confirms

the findings of this study was the study conducted by Gogo (2019), who found a positive influence of principal

leadership styles on student academic performance. The findings of the current study also resonate with those

of Igiri et al. (2019), who found a significant positive relationship between democratic and transformational

leadership styles and student academic performance.

Individualised Influence, Inspirational Motivation and Learner Academic Performance

Results indicated that transformational leadership style attributes of Individualised Consideration (p=0.041)

and Inspirational Motivation (p=0.040) were positive and statistically significant predictors of learner

academic performance. The standardised Beta (β) coefficients of individualised consideration (β=0.220) meant

that a unit increase in individualised consideration tenets increased LAP by 22.0% variance, suggesting that the

head teachers’ consideration of the teachers’ and learners’ needs before their own needs positively influenced

the learners’ academic performance. This finding is in agreement with studies by Ogola (2017) and Shurbarg

(2014), which found a significant association between head teachers' Individualised Consideration and

learners' academic performance.

The inspirational motivation showed a standardised beta Coefficient of (β= 0.358), which meant that a unit

increase in inspirational motivation traits increased LAP by a variance of 35.8%. This study revealed that

when head teachers inspire and motivate both teachers and learners, academic performance improves. This

study relates to studies undertaken by Weiller (2022); & Shava (2021).

Another divergence is that the findings of this study differ from several previous studies in Africa. For

instance, Ogbonnaya et al. (2020); Kitur et al. (2020); Ngunyi (2018); Day et al (2014) found that all attributes

of transformational leadership were strongly related to academic achievement, and so did Leithwood (2014) on

a global level. The reason could be that other dimensions may influence other aspects of the school

environment in these secondary schools, but have no direct impact on learner academic performance,

according to this study.

Whittington et al. (2017) opined that the head teacher's intellectual stimulation helped followers to be sure that

they were creative and revolutionary; they examined intellectual stimulation's impression in transforming

teachers' satisfaction, organisational commitment, and organisational citizenship. They found that the mental

stimulus was characteristic of a unique approach to leaders, encouraging teachers and their attractiveness for

believers' thinking and values. Teachers especially valued their school heads in the field of mental traits of

transformational leadership. This testifies to the fact that the other dimensions of transformational leadership

could affect other faculties in followers and not necessarily LAP.

Convergent Views in the Study

The study revealed strong convergence between the quantitative and qualitative findings regarding two

dimensions of transformational leadership: Individualised Consideration and Inspirational Motivation. Both

dimensions showed statistically significant positive effects on learner academic performance (LAP), with p-

values of 0.041 and 0.040, respectively, and standardised β coefficients of 0.220 and 0.358. This indicates that

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when headteachers demonstrate empathy, personal attention, and motivational engagement, learner academic

performance is likely to be high.

Teacher responses reinforced these findings reflected in their lived experiences with their head teachers. Many

admired the headteachers’ commitment to duty, inclusive leadership, and ability to inspire unity and shared

purpose. Comments such as “bringing people together to achieve a common goal”, “active listener”, and

“commitment to duty” validate the statistical significance of these dimensions of transformational leadership

style.

Divergent Views in the Study

The study revealed divergence in the interpretation and impact of the other transformational leadership

dimensions, specifically Intellectual Stimulation, Idealised Influence (Attribute), and Idealised Influence

(Behaviour). Quantitatively, dimensions showed no statistical significance with LAP. Their p-values exceeded

the 0.05 threshold of significance, and their confidence intervals included zero, suggesting that they had a

limited direct influence on academic performance in this context. To validate this qualitatively, teacher

perceptions were mixed. While some acknowledged openness to ideas and ethical leadership, others expressed

concerns about indecisiveness, fear of change, and external pressures. Phrases like “she appears afraid and

slow in changing the school system” and “he is usually panicking when things are not ready” suggest that these

traits may be underdeveloped or hindered by contextual challenges in the resource-constrained environment in

semi-rural Zambia.

CONCLUSION

Quantitative findings from multiple linear regression analysis revealed that two dimensions of transformational

leadership, Individualised Consideration and Inspirational Motivation, were statistically significant predictors

of LAP. These results suggest that headteachers who demonstrate empathy, personal attention, and

motivational engagement contribute to positive academic outcomes. The qualitative analysis reinforced these

findings, revealing strong admiration for headteachers who foster unity, listen actively, and promote shared

goals. The convergence between statistical significance and lived experiences underscores the practical

relevance of relational and motivational leadership traits in educational settings. Divergent qualitative

responses highlighted challenges such as indecisiveness, fear of change, and external pressures, which may

inhibit the expression of these traits. These findings suggest that while such dimensions may influence other

aspects of school effectiveness (e.g., staff morale, organisational commitment), they may not directly impact

academic performance in these schools.

The study contributes to the growing body of literature on educational leadership in sub-Saharan Africa by

demonstrating that transformational leadership is not monolithic; its dimensions may exert different effects

depending on contextual factors. Future research should explore how these leadership traits interact with

school culture, systemic constraints, and non-academic learner outcomes. Moreover, leadership development

programs should prioritise strengthening headteachers’ relational and motivational capacities while addressing

barriers to assertiveness and innovation.

Declaration of conflict of interest: None of the authors declared a conflict of interest.

Funding Sources: This study did NOT benefit from any external funding.

Appendices

Appendix A

Scoring Process for the Transformational Leadership Factors

Factor

Scale

ITEMS

Total Scores

Transformational Leadership Factors

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Idealized Influence-Attributed

4-Item Scale

10,13,26,34

433

Idealized Influence- Behaviour

4-Item Scale

6,14,18,36

418

Inspirational Motivation

4-Item Scale

9,23,30,31

444

Intellectual Stimulation

4-Item Scale

8,25,32,35

377

Individualized Consideration

4-Item Scale

11,15,21,29

426

Transactional Leadership Factors

Contingent Reward

4-Item Scale

1,16,19,27

375

Management By Exception-Active

4-Item Scale

2,22,24,33

262

Passive Avoidant Leadership Factors

Management By Exception-Passive

4-Item Scale

3,4,12,19

163

Laissez Faire

4-Item Scale

5,7,17,28

141

Leadership Outcome Factors

Extra Effort

3-Item Scale

39,42,44

316

Effectiveness

4-Item Scale

37,40,43,45

518

Satisfaction

2-Item Scale

38,41

215

Appendix B

Reliability Statistics for the MLQ Scale

Cronbach's Alpha

Cronbach's Alpha Based on

Standardised Items

Mean

Number of Items

.802

.887

2.789

Appendix C

Reliability Statistics for the APS Scale

Cronbach's Alpha

Cronbach's Alpha Based on Std

Items

Mean

Number of Items

0.721

0.701

4.067

Appendix D: The Normality Test for the APS scale

Survey Questions

Kolmogorov-Smirnov

Shapiro-Wilk

Stat.

Sig.

Statistic

Sig.

1. I make myself ready in all subjects.

0.301

40.33

0.00

0.76

40.33

0.00

2. I pay attention and listen in every

discussion.

0.31

40.33

0.00

0.78

40.33

0.00

3. I want to get good grades in all subjects.

0.48

40.33

0.00

0.47

40.33

0.00

4. I actively participate in every discussion.

0.28

40.33

0.00

0.71

40.33

0.00

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5. I start to work on papers and assignments

as soon as they are assigned.

0.26

40.33

0.00

0.82

40.33

0.00

6. I enjoy homework and activities because

they help me improve my skills in every

subject.

0.28

40.33

0.00

0.79

40.33

0.00

7. I exert more effort when I do difficult

assignments.

0.30

40.33

0.00

0.76

40.33

0.00

8. Solving problems is a useful hobby for

me.

.249

40.33

0.00

0.815

40.33

0.00

a. Lilliefors Significance Correction N=242

Appendix E

Tests of Normality

Kolmogorov-Smirnov

Shapiro-Wilk test

Statistic

Sig.

Statistic

Sig.

Transformational

.116

.080

.898

.000

Transactional

.095

.200

.970

.208

Passive avoidant

.184

.000

.810

.000

*. This is a lower bound of the true significance.

a. Lilliefors Significance Correction

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