School dropout among Asnaf students who are eligible for zakat assistance under Islamic social welfare

remains a critical concern for educational equity in Malaysia. In Perlis, an increasing number of Asnaf students

have been referred to rehabilitation centers due to truancy, behavioral issues, and emotional distress. This study

aims to identify and analyze the key factors contributing to school dropout among Asnaf students in eight

secondary schools across the state. Guided by five hypotheses, economic hardship, family instability,

1) Economic hardship and financial instability;

2) Family instability and emotional neglect;

3) Community pressure and negative peer influence;

4) Educational quality and resource limitations; and

5) Psychological challenges and low self-esteem.

Cross-case comparison revealed dynamic interactions among these factors, forming an ecological cycle where

poverty and emotional stress amplify disengagement, eventually leading to dropout or rehabilitation referral.

Findings demonstrate that economic hardship and family instability are the strongest predictors of school

dropout, while community influence, school limitations, and psychological distress act as reinforcing

mechanisms. Counselors emphasized inconsistent zakat assistance, limited parental supervision, and

students, family members, and rehabilitation officers to achieve richer data triangulation. While these groups

narratives and referral records, strengthening interpretive depth.

model

Education is widely recognized as a key driver for social mobility, economic inclusion, and human capital

development (UNESCO, 2021; World Bank, 2020). However, despite increased enrollments, school dropout

remains a persistent global challenge, particularly for students from socioeconomically vulnerable groups

rehabilitation centres due to chronic absenteeism, truancy, substance‐related behavior or disciplinary concerns

(Salman Rahman & Rashid Hassan, 2023; Abdul Raof et al., 2024). These trajectories suggest that dropout

among asnaf students is a complex, multi-dimensional process rather than a single event.

To understand these intricate processes, the socio-ecological model (Urie Bronfenbrenner, 1979) provides a

valuable framework that posits that interacting systems, including family, school, community, and broader

institutional conditions, shape individual behavior. Research in Malaysia confirms that factors at these different

levels interplay: for instance, financial hardship in asnaf households undermines attendance and motivation

(Ismail & Ismail, 2022), while inadequate school support and punitive discipline contribute to disengagement

(Noor & Abdullah, 2022; Warner, 2021). Peer influences and social stigma further escalate the risk of dropout

and hinder reintegration (Ali & Zainal, 2021; Yusuf, 2023).

assistance alone is insufficient, and behavioral and institutional supports are necessary to reduce dropout

and related social problems (Ishad et al., 2024).

Despite these findings, a research gap remains, as few qualitative studies have delved into the lived experiences

and referral pathways of “asnaf” students who drop out and enter rehabilitation in the secondary school

context of Perlis. As such, this study aims to investigate how individual, family, school, and

community/institutional factors interact to influence dropout and referral to rehabilitation centers among asnaf

students in Perlis. It addresses three specific research questions:

1) How do asnaf students, caregivers and educators describe the experiences and events preceding school

disengagement?

2) How are decisions for referral to rehabilitation centres initiated and negotiated among schools, families

3) What enabling and constraining conditions shape reintegration after rehabilitation?

Asnaf context. Therefore, this study refines existing thematic boundaries by situating dropout not as a singular

event but as a cumulative process shaped by stressors occurring at multiple ecological layers. This perspective

allows for clearer narrative transitions between individual experiences and structural influences.

Furthermore, school-based observations were complemented by documentation reviews (disciplinary records,

referral forms) to support data triangulation, ensuring that interpretations aligned with real-case patterns

experienced by Asnaf families and rehabilitation agencies.

Socioeconomic deprivation is a primary determinant of educational disengagement (Rahman et al., 2021).

Low-income Asnaf families often prioritize survival over schooling, leading to chronic absenteeism and

Communities play a pivotal role in shaping student behavior. Negative peer pressure, exposure to crime, and

lack of positive role models increase dropout tendencies (Ismail & Ibrahim, 2019). Studies suggest that Asnaf

students in high-risk neighborhoods face increased vulnerability to delinquent activities (Abd Rahman, 2022).

School-level factors, including resource scarcity and teacher training, have a significant influence on student

retention (Nor et al., 2020). Poor teacher-student engagement and low-quality instruction contribute to

disinterest and detachment among disadvantaged learners (Zakaria & Hassan, 2024).

Psychological challenges such as low self-esteem, depression, and anxiety are increasingly recognized as

micro, and individual) interact to influence the pathway from disengagement to dropout and referral.

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework

Exosystem

Institutions such as zakat bodies, Jabatan Kebajikan Masyarakat (JKM), community Non-

interpretation of findings by aligning each theme to the ecological layers.

2. To examine how economic, familial, and psychological factors influence referrals to rehabilitation

1. Economic Hardship Hypothesis (H1): Economic hardships faced by Asnaf families significantly

contribute to the high dropout rates of Asnaf students in Perlis.

2. Family Instability Hypothesis (H2): Family instability, including domestic violence and divorce, is a

significant factor leading to dropout.

3. Community Influence Hypothesis (H3): Negative community influences, including crime and a lack of

role models, are associated with higher dropout rates.

three intervals to enhance inter coder dependability.

5. Defining and naming themes

In rural schools, inconsistent Internet and outdated devices hindered student engagement, especially during the

post-pandemic hybrid learning period.

“During online classes, some Asnaf students borrowed phones from neighbors or simply did not join.”

(Teacher, School B)

Some teachers exhibited low expectations toward chronically absent students, reinforcing their alienation.

This aligns with the findings of Nor et al. (2020) and Mustafa (2025) that teacher-student relationships are

critical predictors of retention.

Confirming H5, psychological struggles emerged as both symptom and cause of dropout. Counselors across

Overlapping financial, family, and community pressures led some students to exhibit withdrawal and apathy,

which teachers sometimes misinterpreted as a lack of motivation or laziness.

The five themes interacted dynamically rather than linearly. Economic hardship underpinned most pathways,

context modulated outcomes.

A simplified interaction model emerging from cross-case analysis is summarized below:

While core themes were consistent, contextual nuances were notable:

 Urban schools (Kangar and Arau): More issues with peer pressure, substance exposure, and digital

distractions.