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ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XXVII November 2025 | Special Issue
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The Effectiveness of Integrated STEM Approaches on Secondary
School Students’ Critical Thinking: A Systematic Literature Review
(2019–2025)
Nurul Huda Kasim
*
, Mohamad Termizi Borhan, Nur Izwani Mohd Shapri
Faculty of Science and Mathematics, Sultan Idris Education Universiti
*
Corresponding Author
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.927000011
Received: 12 November 2025; Accepted: 18 November 2025; Published: 26 November 2025
ABSTRACT
This Systematic Literature Review (SLR) synthesizes empirical evidence published between 2019 and 2025 on
the effectiveness of integrated Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) approaches in
enhancing secondary school students’ Critical Thinking (CT) skills. Following the PRISMA 2020 guidelines, a
total of 201 records were identified (48 from Scopus and 153 from Google Scholar), from which 17 empirical
studies met the inclusion criteria. The findings demonstrate that integrated STEM (iSTEM) interventions
generally have a positive impact on students’ CT, particularly in developing analytical reasoning, problem-
solving, and collaborative inquiry. Effective approaches included Project-Based Learning (PjBL), Problem-
Based Learning (PBL), and Design-Based or Robotics-Integrated Inquiry. However, persistent challenges
remain concerning teacher preparedness, curriculum alignment, and the valid assessment of CT. Overall, iSTEM
education demonstrates strong potential to cultivate CT among secondary school learners. Nevertheless, future
research should include more longitudinal designs, standardized assessment tools, and targeted professional
development to strengthen implementation and sustainability.
Keywords: Integrated STEM, Critical Thinking, Secondary School, PRISMA, Systematic Literature Review
INTRODUCTION
Critical Thinking (CT) is increasingly recognized as a cornerstone competency across all levels of education
(García-Carmona, 2023; Loyens et al., 2023b) and within contemporary professional sectors (Bezanilla &
Galindo-Domínguez, 2021). Mastery of CT is fundamental for both personal growth and civic engagement,
particularly in an era characterized by rapid technological advancement and shifting global labor demands
(Vincent-Lancrin, 2023)
The importance of CT is further underscored by the growing need for individuals who can make informed,
ethical, and empathetic judgments to counteract biased or irrational decision-making (Mascarenhas et al.,
2023b). In contrast, a deficiency in CT can impede one’s ability to recognize and evaluate potential consequences
in personal, social, and professional contexts (Mascarenhas et al., 2023a). Correspondingly, recent data from the
World Economic Forum (2023) project a 45% to 75% increase in demand for professionals in emerging fields
such as Big Data analytics, Artificial Intelligence (AI), and Cloud Computing, all of which rely heavily on CT
and problem-solving skills (Loyens et al., 2023; World Economic Forum, 2023).
Within this landscape, secondary school marks a critical stage in cognitive development, aligning with Piaget’s
formal operational stage (1950), where learners begin to reason beyond concrete experiences and engage in
abstract, logical thinking. According to Piaget (1950), this period marks the emergence of formal operational
thought, where learners begin to reason logically beyond tangible experiences and engage in
hypotheticaldeductive thinking. Empirical evidence supports this transition, with Bitzenbauer et al. (2023)
revealing that students’ understanding becomes increasingly abstract and systematically organized as they
progress through secondary education. Similarly, Abrami et al. (2015) highlighted the significance of fostering
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
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CT during this stage, as students remain highly receptive to instructional strategies that promote higher-order
reasoning.
Building on this developmental foundation, integrated STEM (iSTEM) education, which meaningfully connects
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM), serves as an effective pedagogical framework for
nurturing CT (Yaki, 2022; Asrizal et al., 2022; Hebebci & Usta, 2022). By engaging students in authentic
problem-solving, inquiry, and collaboration, iSTEM has been demonstrated to foster creativity, analytical
reasoning, and reflective inquiry, key components of CT (Ha et al., 2023; Rosidin et al., 2019).
Although research on iSTEM has expanded in recent years, evidence regarding its impact on the development
of CT among secondary school students remains fragmented. Previous reviews (e.g., Becker & Park, 2011;
Thomas & Larwin, 2023) have largely examined general learning outcomes or teacher perspectives, leaving a
gap in understanding how iSTEM influences CT among secondary learners.
To address this gap, this Systematic Literature Review (SLR) synthesizes empirical studies published between
2019 and 2025 to examine how iSTEM approaches influence the development of CT among secondary school
students. The review aims to identify emerging trends, effective instructional strategies, and remaining research
gaps in the current literature.
1. RQ1: What are the characteristics and trends of studies investigating iSTEM and CT?
2. RQ2: What teaching approaches and strategies in iSTEM are reported to develop CT?
3. RQ3: To what extent is iSTEM shown to be effective in enhancing students’ CT?
4. RQ4: What gaps and recommendations emerge from the existing literature?
METHODOLOGY
Review Protocol
The review followed the PRISMA 2020 guidelines for reporting systematic reviews, and the flow of study
selection is presented in the PRISMA flow diagram for systematic reviews, ensuring transparency and
replicability (Page et al., 2021).
Search Strategy
A systematic search was conducted in two major databases: Scopus and Google Scholar, covering the years 2019
to 2025. Search terms included combinations of integrated STEM, critical thinking, middle school, secondary
school, and effectiveness. The following search string was established: ("integrated STEM" OR "iSTEM" OR
"STEM integration") AND ("critical thinking" OR "higher order thinking skills" OR "HOTS").
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
To ensure that only relevant and high-quality studies were included, a set of inclusion and exclusion criteria was
established prior to screening. The inclusion criteria focused on selecting empirical, peer-reviewed studies that
implemented iSTEM interventions and measured outcomes related to CT or Higher-Order Thinking Skills
(HOTS) among school-aged learners. At the same time, exclusion criteria were applied to filter out studies that
were conceptual, theoretical, focused on teacher populations, or did not report CT outcomes. The criteria used
for study selection are summarised in Table 1.
Table 1: Inclusion and exclusion criteria
Inclusion
Exclusion
Empirical, peer-reviewed studies
Non-empirical papers (conceptual, theoretical, policy briefs)
Focus on iSTEM
Studies not implementing iSTEM
Outcomes include critical thinking or
HOTS
Studies focusing only on motivation, interest, or academic
achievement
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Participants are secondary school
students (Grades 6–9)
Studies involving pre-service teachers, in-service training, university
students, or primary school students
Published 2019–2025 in English
Articles outside the date range or not in English
Accessible (open-access or through
institutional subscription)
Review articles (systematic reviews, metaanalyses); articles with no
full-text access
Developmental research describing only the design phase without
implementation or outcome data
Search Strategy
Scopus and Google Scholar were selected as the primary databases due to their comprehensive coverage of peer-
reviewed research in STEM education. The search was conducted between 2019 and 2025, limited to studies
published in English.
The following Boolean search string was applied in both databases:
("integrated STEM" OR "iSTEM" OR "STEM integration") AND ("critical thinking" OR "higher order thinking
skills" OR "HOTS").
FINDINGS
Study Selection
A total of 201 records were retrieved from Scopus (n = 48) and Google Scholar (n = 153). After removing 160
duplicate and irrelevant records, 40 studies remained for title and abstract screening. Subsequently, 16 were
excluded for not meeting the inclusion criteria, leaving 24 for full-text review. During eligibility assessment,
seven were excluded: one non-empirical, four involving non-secondary participants, and two with mixed
samples including undergraduates, resulting in 17 empirical studies included in the final synthesis.
The PRISMA flow diagram (Figure 1) illustrates the step-by-step process of identification, screening, eligibility
assessment, and final inclusion of studies. This process ensured that only empirical studies directly addressing
the effectiveness of iSTEM on middle school students’ CT were synthesized.
Figure 1: PRISMA Flow Diagram of Study Selection Process
Figure 1: PRISMA Flow Diagram of the study selection process S
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Study Characteristics
Table 2 presents an overview of the 17 studies included in this review, summarizing publication year, country,
participants, research design, teaching approaches, and key findings related to CT outcomes.
Table 2: Overview of the 17 studies included in the review.
Author(s), Year
Country
Research Design
Sample
(Secondary)
CT/HOTS
Aspects
Method/Instrument
Used
Key Findings
Source
Thomason &
Hsu (2025)
USA
Mixedmethod
Middle
school
Design thinking
dispositions, CT
Pre-post survey;
interviews
No significant
statistical
difference;
perceived gains
in problem
solving &
collaboration
Scopus
Yaki (2022)
Nigeria
Quasiexperimental
112, middle
school
biology
Inference,
assumption,
deduction,
interpretation,
evaluation
Critical Thinking
Skill Test
Large effect
size (d = 1.56),
significant CT
improvement
Scopus
Ha et al. (2023)
Vietnam
Quasiexperimental
120, grade 6
HOTS (analyze,
evaluate, create)
Post-test &
questionnaires
A-5E-STEM
outperformed
5E-STEM &
didactic,
improved
HOTS
Scopus
Asrizal et al.
(2022)
Indonesia
Experimental
(nonequivalent)
66, secondary
physics
CT, creative
thinking,
communication
Concept mastery test;
skills assessment
PETMS
improved 21st-
century skills,
incl. CT
Scopus
Hebebci & Usta
(2022)
Turkey
Quasiexperimental
50, grade 8
CT dispositions,
PS, creativity
ANCOVA of pre/post
data
CT and PS
significantly
improved
Scopus
Yim et al.
(2024)
Hong
Kong
Design-based
Secondary
(competition
participants)
CT & problem-
solving
Activity tasks;
observation sheets
Robotics-
enhanced CT,
collaboration
Scopus
Rosidin et al.
(2019)
Indonesia
R&D +
quasiexperimental
~54 students
HOTS (analyze,
evaluate, create)
Pre-post HOTS tests
HOTS
improved
significantly vs.
conventional
Google
Scholar
Ananda et al.
(2021)
Indonesia
Quasiexperimental
(factorial)
63, high
school
chemistry
CT (reasoning,
problem-
solving)
Two-way ANOVA
on the CT test
Significant
gains in CT
depending on
initial ability
Google
Scholar
Evcim & Arslan
(2022)
Turkey
Quasiexperimental
50, grade 7
CT
(interpretation,
explanation,
evaluation)
Critical Thinking
Scales (Demir,
2006a)
Significant CT
gains in exp.
group
Google
Scholar
Prastika et al.
(2022)
Indonesia
Quasiexperimental
(2x2 factorial)
High school
students
CT (conceptual,
analytical)
CT & conceptual tests
PBL-STEM >
PBL alone,
improved CT
across groups
Google
Scholar
Puspita et al.
(2022)
Indonesia
Quasiexperimental
2 classes,
SMA Bandar
Lampung
CT & self-
efficacy
CT test; MANOVA
Significant
improvement in
CT and self-
efficacy
Google
Scholar
Pramasdyahsari
et al. (2023)
Indonesia
One-group pre-post
Junior high
(math,
number
patterns)
Mathematical
CT
Mathematical CT
test; surveys
Valid &
effective;
medium N-gain
in CT
Google
Scholar
Ata et al. (2023)
Indonesia
True experimental
High school
chemistry
CT (analytical
reasoning,
problem-
solving)
CT post-test;
observation;
questionnaires
PBL-STEM
improved CT
significantly
Google
Scholar
Khoirunnissa et
al. (2024)
Indonesia
Preexperimental
(one-group)
36, SMA
CT
(clarification,
reasoning)
Formative CT tests
Medium N-gain
(0.5); CT
improved
overall
Google
Scholar
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Ashari et al.
(2021)
Indonesia
One-group pre-post
32, SMA
Malang
HOTS
(Marzano
taxonomy)
HOTS test (Marzano)
Significant
gains in HOTS
indicators
Google
Scholar
Harianty et al.
(2025)
Indonesia
Quasiexperimental
Grade XI
SMA
CT
(interpretation,
synthesis,
evaluation)
CT tests; N-gain;
effect size
Very large
effect (d =
2.07), N-gain =
0.57 (moderate)
Google
Scholar
Rohmah et al.
(2023)
Indonesia
One-group pre-post
33, SMP
Surabaya
CT
(mathematical
reasoning)
CT test; questionnaire
N-gain = 0.42
(medium),
positive student
responses
Google
Scholar
Findings By Research Question
RQ1: What are the characteristics and trends of studies investigating iSTEM and CT?
The analysis revealed a clear growth in iSTEM research targeting CT and HOTS from 2019 onwards. Out of the
17 included studies, the majority were conducted in Indonesia, with additional contributions from Vietnam,
Turkey, the United States, and Hong Kong. This regional concentration reflects particularly strong research
activity in Southeast Asia, although it also indicates an imbalance in global evidence generation.
Methodologically, quasi-experimental designs dominate, followed by mixed-methods, one-group pre-post, and
a smaller number of true experiments and case studies. Sample sizes were generally modest (30-120 students).
While the prevalence of classroom-based interventions demonstrates strong applied interest, the scarcity of
Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs) and longitudinal studies limits causal inference and understanding of
sustained effects.
RQ2: What teaching approaches and strategies in iSTEM are reported to develop CT?
Across the reviewed studies, Project-Based Learning (PjBL) and Problem-Based Learning (PBL) emerged as
the most effective and frequently used pedagogical approaches. These approaches are grounded in constructivist
learning theory, encouraging inquiry, collaboration, and real-world problem-solving. Variations such as
argumentation-supported models (A-5E-STEM), digital e-modules, GeoGebra-based mathematics instruction,
and robotics-based STEM projects also demonstrated consistent positive impacts on CT development.
Importantly, interventions that integrated explicit scaffolds, such as structured argumentation, fishbone
diagrams, or AI-driven reflection, produced more robust CT outcomes compared to approaches where CT was
assumed to emerge implicitly through STEM engagement.
RQ3: To what extent is iSTEM shown to be effective in enhancing students’ CT?
Evidence strongly supports the effectiveness of iSTEM in fostering CT and HOTS among secondary school
students. Sixteen out of the seventeen included studies reported significant improvements in CT indicators,
including inference, evaluation, reasoning, explanation, and problem-solving. Several studies documented
moderate-to-high normalized gains (0.3-0.57) and large effect sizes (Cohen’s d > 0.8), indicating substantial
impact. Even in studies where no statistical significance was observed (e.g., Thomason & Hsu, 2025), students
perceived positive benefits in design thinking, collaboration, and problem-solving. These findings confirm that
iSTEM interventions are generally effective in improving CT, although the strength of outcomes varies
depending on intervention duration, instructional quality, and the presence of explicit scaffolding.
RQ4: What gaps and recommendations emerge from the existing literature?
Despite encouraging findings, several research gaps remain. First, the dominance of short-term
quasiexperimental studies highlights the need for more rigorous longitudinal and randomized designs to establish
sustained effects and causal claims. Second, teacher readiness and professional development remain critical
challenges. Many teachers lack sufficient preparation to implement interdisciplinary iSTEM effectively. Third,
there is a lack of standardized CT assessment tools, as studies employ diverse instruments (e.g., CT scales, HOTS
tests, self-report surveys), making comparison across contexts difficult. Finally, the regional clustering of studies,
particularly in Indonesia, underscores the need for broader representation from other global regions, such as
Europe, Africa, and Latin America, to build a more balanced evidence base.
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DISCUSSIONS
This review reveals a steady growth in research on iSTEM and CT over the past decade, with the majority of
studies conducted in Asian contexts and employing experimental or quasi-experimental designs. This trend
reflects a global shift toward evidence-based instructional models, as noted in prior meta-analytic work (Becker
& Park, 2011), which also reported medium-sized positive effects of STEM integration on student outcomes.
Findings related to RQ2 indicate that PjBL, robotics, and Design-Based Inquiry were among the most frequently
employed and effective pedagogical approaches. These strategies align with constructivist and design-based
learning theories, which emphasize authentic problem-solving and student-centered inquiry (Thomas & Larwin,
2023). The strong gains in CT observed in studies using explicit scaffolding (e.g., guiding questions, structured
reflection, or AI-supported feedback) further highlight the importance of intentional design in fostering higher-
order reasoning.
Regarding RQ3, approximately 94% of included studies (16 of 17) reported statistically significant
improvements in CT or HOTS following iSTEM interventions. This aligns with recent reviews suggesting that
well-designed STEM interventions reliably produce cognitive gains, although the magnitude of effects varies
depending on duration, teacher preparation, and assessment quality (Thomas & Larwin, 2023). Interventions of
longer duration and those embedding explicit critical-thinking activities yielded stronger N-Gain or effect size
values.
Nevertheless, the analysis highlights several gaps (RQ4). Many studies used small samples or lacked control
groups, limiting the generalizability of findings. There was also an inconsistency in the operationalization and
measurement of CT, with some relying solely on teacher-made tests or rubric-based assessments. These
methodological limitations echo calls from prior reviews for more robust research designs and standardized CT
assessments (Fatimah et al., 2023). Furthermore, the limited attention to teacher readiness and implementation
fidelity in the reviewed studies suggests that future research should explore student outcomes and consider how
instructional materials and teaching supports can enhance the practicality of iSTEM approaches. In addition,
strengthening these dimensions would ensure that iSTEM interventions are effective in theory, as well as
sustainable and applicable in real classroom contexts.
CONCLUSION
This systematic review of 17 empirical studies published between 2019 and 2025 demonstrates that iSTEM
approaches are largely effective in enhancing secondary school students’ CT. The most successful interventions
integrated real-world problem-solving, inquiry-based learning, and collaborative design tasks, particularly
through PjBL, PBL, and robotics-based STEM projects.
Despite these promising outcomes, several areas require further attention. Many studies remain short-term and
quasi-experimental, limiting causal inferences. The lack of standardized CT assessments and limited teacher
readiness also constrain broader implementation. Future research should therefore focus on longitudinal and
randomized studies, develop common measurement frameworks for CT, and provide systematic professional
development to enhance teachers’ capacity to deliver high-quality iSTEM instruction.
By addressing these gaps, iSTEM education can serve as a sustainable and evidence-based pathway for
cultivating students’ critical skills and HOTS essential for 21st-century learning.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors declare that this research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public,
commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
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