ICTMT 2025 | International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)

ISSN: 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS

Special Issue | Volume IX Issue XXVIII November 2025

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The Role of Self-Efficacy and Business Simulation towards

Entrepreneurial Traits Development

Victor Nipis

, Juhaini binti Jabar

, Murzidah binti Ahmad Murad

Institute Kemahiran MARA Bintulu, 97000 Sarawak

2,3

Fakulti Pengurusan Teknologi dan Teknousahawanan, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka

*Corresponding Author

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.92800001

Received: 26 October 2025; Accepted: 01 November 2025; Published: 18 December 2025

ABSTRACT

Although entrepreneurship has been prioritized in the Twelfth Malaysia Plan (RMK-12) and the National TVET

Policy, current practices remain largely theoretical and offer limited opportunities for experiential learning. In

addressing this gap, the study employs a Design and Development Research (DDR) approach which focusing

on the module’s initial design phase. Grounded in experiential learning theory, the design process will

incorporate needs analysis, literature review, and expert consultation to ensure contextual relevance and

pedagogical consistency. The module also integrates interactive simulation-based activities aimed at

strengthening entrepreneurial self-efficacy, decision-making, and business acumen. The first phase is known as

module’s conceptualization and structure. Subsequently, the phases will involve systematic validation and

evaluation. The study contributes to entrepreneurship education by presenting a replicable design framework

and delivering a practical, student-centred simulation tool tailored for TVET institutions.

Keywords: simulation-based, self-efficacy, TVET, entrepreneurship education

INTRODUCTION

Entrepreneurship education is vital driver of national progress, promoting innovation, strengthening economic

stability, and improving graduate employability. In Malaysia, policy documents such as the Twelfth Malaysia

Plan (RMK-12), the Thirteenth Malaysia Plan (RMK-13), the National TVET Policy, and the MARA Strategic

Plan (2021–2025) emphasize the importance of equipping Technical and Vocational Education and Training

(TVET) graduates with entrepreneurial skills. This is important to ensure graduates moving out from being job

seekers to job creators (Economic Planning Unit (EPU), 2021; EPU, 2025; Majlis Amanah Rakyat (MARA),

2021). Despite these aspirations, entrepreneurship education in MARA TVET institutions still applying

conventional, lecture-based delivery methods. Such approaches often fail to nurture critical entrepreneurial traits

such as creativity, resilience, initiative, and the willingness to take risks (The INS News, 2022). This limitation

is concerning in light of Malaysia’s broader objective of preparing entrepreneurial workforce in alignment with

industry 4.0 and national transformation agenda (Wan, 2025).

This study will use three theoretical perspectives, which are, situated learning theory, experiential learning

theory, and human capital theory. Situated learning theory highlights that knowledge acquisition is most effective

when learners engage in authentic, real-life contexts. In parallel, experiential learning theory involves

experimentation, reflection, and adaptation, where knowledge is constructed through direct experience and

critical assessment of outcomes. This cycle of action and reflection, which is central to entrepreneurial practice,

is well supported through simulation-based instruction (Silitonga et al., 2024). Additionally, human capital

theory positions education and training as investments that enhance individuals’ productivity and economic

contribution. By embedding structured entrepreneurship education into TVET, students’ technical expertise is

complemented with entrepreneurial knowledge and business acumen, thus strengthening their overall human

capital (Silitonga et al., 2024). In year 2023, entrepreneurship statistic had shown that 16.3% TVET students

from 407,000 registered students involved in various entrepreneurship activities (Business Today, 2024).

Additionally, about 10% of Polytechnics and community colleges have established own business after

completing studies (Sinar Daily, 2023). These figures had shown that the institutions were no longer limited

ICTMT 2025 | International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)

ISSN: 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS

Special Issue | Volume IX Issue XXVIII November 2025

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preparing graduates for traditional employment but is increasingly fostering entrepreneurial mindsets and self-

reliance.

Self-efficacy, in other words, plays a critical role in the development of entrepreneurial traits. This is defined as

confidence in one’s ability to successfully undertake entrepreneurial tasks. Recent studies had shown business

simulation have the potential to enhance self-efficacy (Zulfiqar et al., 2021). Yet, in MARA TVET context,

entrepreneurship modules are often neither structured nor adapted to students’ needs, and little empirical work

has been done to examine the mediating role of self-efficacy in linking simulation-based learning to the

development of entrepreneurial traits. A recent study by Rahim et al (2025) examined MARA students whose

undertaken digital entrepreneurship subject and found that they exhibited weak levels of personal entrepreneurial

competencies (PEC). The researchers argued that this was due to insufficiently structured and poorly aligned

module with students’ learning needs. They argued more innovative and experiential strategies, such as

collaboration with practicing entrepreneurs and business demonstration are essential to enhance entrepreneurial

readiness.

Thus, this research will develop a structured module of business simulation embedding real-world

entrepreneurial decision-making and providing students with opportunities to practice problem-solving, risk

assessment and business strategy in an interactive and engaging environment. Along the way to the design is the

incorporation of mechanisms that can strengthen self-efficacy, positioning the module not only as a teaching

tool but also as a means of shaping students’ confidence in their entrepreneurial abilities (Yang, et al, 2022).

LITERATURE REVIEW

Pedagogical Factors

Simulation-based Instructional design

Business simulation, grounded in Kolb’s (1984) Experiential Learning Theory, reframes entrepreneurship

education by transforming students from passive recipients of knowledge into active decision-makers who learn

through iterative cycles of experience, reflection, and conceptualization. While researchers such as Randall et

al. (2025) and Levkovskyi et al. (2021) affirm its capacity to integrate experience, cognition, and behavior into

a holistic learning model, others argue that simulations often prioritize engagement over genuine cognitive

transformation. Existing studies highlight improvements in problem-solving, teamwork, and entrepreneurial

mindsets (Akhtaruzzaman et al., 2024; Beranič & Heričko, 2022; Zulfiqar et al., 2021), yet many remain

outcome-focused rather than process-oriented, offering limited insight into how entrepreneurial traits are

internalized. Integrating self-efficacy into simulation learning presents a critical theoretical advancement, as it

explains the psychological mechanisms through which experiential tasks translate into entrepreneurial behavior

(Primario et al., 2024). Although emerging evidence supports the role of digital simulations in enhancing

innovation and sustainable competitiveness (Chang et al., 2025), critics that without sufficient framework, such

technologies risk reinforcing surface-level engagement (Petersen, 2023). Consequently, the synergistic

interaction between business simulation, self-efficacy, and entrepreneurial trait development remains

underexplored, particularly within Malaysia’s TVET institutions, where contextual variables such as

technological access and pedagogical design differ significantly. Addressing this gap, the present study extends

the discourse by examining how business simulation enhances self-efficacy and entrepreneurial traits among

MARA TVET students, contributing both theoretically and contextually to the evolving field of entrepreneurship

education.

Entrepreneurial Assessment Performance

Assessment in entrepreneurship education differs from traditional academic evaluation, which often prioritizes

knowledge recall over applied competence. While conventional written tests fail to capture dynamic skills such

as creativity, resilience, and opportunity recognition, authentic assessments, including simulations and business

pitches, better reflect the iterative and uncertain nature of entrepreneurial practice (Secundo et al., 2021;

Primario, Rippa, & Secundo, 2024). Yet, researchers differ in their emphasis: some argue that these approaches

enhance practical decision-making and teamwork (Levkovskyi et al., 2021), whereas others indicate that they

ICTMT 2025 | International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)

ISSN: 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS

Special Issue | Volume IX Issue XXVIII November 2025

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overlook psychological dimensions such as motivation and confidence (Petersen, 2023). Evidence increasingly

shows that assessment performance correlates with entrepreneurial self-efficacy, which shapes students’ belief

in their capacity to act entrepreneurially (McGee et al., 2009; Randall et al., 2025). Therefore, integrating self-

efficacy indicators into assessment design provides a more balanced and explanatory measure of entrepreneurial

learning, linking visible behavior with the underlying psychological readiness essential for real-world

entrepreneurship.

Technological Factors

Technological Integration

Technology is no longer a peripheral support tool but a transformative driver of entrepreneurship education,

reshaping how knowledge is created, shared, and applied. While Davis’s (1989) Technology Acceptance Model

highlights perceived ease of use and usefulness as key determinants of digital adoption, recent studies argue that

these constructs alone are insufficient to explain the dynamic learning demands of entrepreneurship (Randall et

al., 2025; Akhtaruzzaman et al., 2024). Contemporary simulation-based approaches, for instance, extend beyond

usability by emphasizing experiential immersion and behavioral transformation, elements often overlooked in

early technology models. Furthermore, while proponents such as Levkovskyi et al. (2021) and Primario, Rippa,

and Secundo (2024) assert that technology fosters creativity, collaboration, and entrepreneurial self-efficacy,

critics caution that technological sophistication does not guarantee pedagogical effectiveness. Petersen (2023)

contends that without intentional instructional design, digital tools risk becoming superficial add-ons rather than

catalysts for deeper entrepreneurial learning. This underscores the need for digital readiness and pedagogical

alignment, particularly within MARA’s TVET ecosystem, where disparities in technological access and educator

preparedness remain persistent (Beranič & Heričko, 2022).

Human Factors

Student Engagement

Traditional classroom participation often promotes surface-level engagement, business simulations provide

deeper experiential involvement by exposing students to real-world entrepreneurial challenges (Levkovskyi et

al., 2021). Researchers argue that such immersive engagement enhances opportunity recognition and venture

creation (Zhao et al., 2021; Petersen, 2023), while others indicate that sustained engagement also cultivates

resilience, adaptability, and entrepreneurial intention, core attributes of entrepreneurial success (Akhtaruzzaman

et al., 2024; Chang et al., 2025). Hence, engagement within simulation-based learning represents not merely

participation but an active transformation of knowledge into entrepreneurial behavior.

Facilitative Teaching Practices

Researchers argue that this approach enables deeper cognitive processing, as educators act as mentors who

scaffold learning through structured reflection, feedback, and strategic decision-making (Petersen, 2023). In

contrast, directive teaching often limits students’ autonomy and risk-taking, the skills essential for

entrepreneurial success. Effective facilitative teaching thus requires educators to design meaningful, context-

driven activities that foster reflective dialogue, entrepreneurial resilience, and a growth-oriented mindset,

equipping learners to navigate uncertainty and innovation with confidence (Akhtaruzzaman et al., 2024; Chang

et al., 2025).

Institutional Supports

Access to resources and mentorship remains a decisive factor in entrepreneurial traits development, as

emphasized by the resource-based view (Barney, 1991). While traditional universities often benefit from

established networks, funding channels, and structured entrepreneurial ecosystems, TVET institutions frequently

operate with limited access to such support, constraining students’ opportunities for venture creation and

innovation. Prior studies show that entrepreneurial traits such as resilience, opportunity recognition, and

proactiveness develop effectively within environments that provide robust institutional support and mentorship

structures (Fayolle & Gailly, 2015; Walter & Block, 2016; Halim et al., 2021). However, in TVET contexts

where technical training dominates, these supports must be contextualized through mentorship schemes, startup

ICTMT 2025 | International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)

ISSN: 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS

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incubation, and community-based entrepreneurial projects to translate technical competence into entrepreneurial

capability (Aziz et al., 2020; Wan, 2025). This contrast highlights a persistent gap between resource-rich

academic settings and resource-constrained vocational systems, underscoring the need for more strategic

institutional interventions to strengthen entrepreneurial traits among TVET learners.

Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy serves as a core psychological mechanism linking entrepreneurial intention, perseverance, and

performance. Rooted in Bandura’s (1997) social cognitive theory, it reflects one’s belief in their ability to execute

entrepreneurial tasks effectively. While early research viewed self-efficacy primarily as a motivational factor,

recent studies position it as a predictive determinant of entrepreneurial behavior, mediating the relationship

between learning experiences and venture outcomes (Ahmad & Fazal, 2022; Lee & Kim, 2024). Researchers

argue that individuals with higher entrepreneurial self-efficacy demonstrate greater confidence in managing

uncertainty and business complexity, leading to higher persistence and venture success. Conversely, weak self-

efficacy often results in avoidance of entrepreneurial risk and reduced innovation. This contrast underscores the

construct’s centrality not only as an outcome of experiential learning but also as a driving force behind

entrepreneurial resilience and behavioral intention.

Entrepreneurial Traits

Entrepreneurial traits refer to personal dispositions such as creativity, innovativeness, risk-taking, and

proactiveness, which collectively shape entrepreneurial behavior and intention. Earlier research viewed these

traits as innate or static characteristics, suggesting that entrepreneurship is limited to individuals with natural

tendencies. However, contemporary researchers argue that such traits can be cultivated and enhanced through

structured education and experiential learning that simulate real-world business challenges (Halim, Rahman, &

Nasir, 2021; Tan & Lim, 2023). This shift reflects a growing recognition that entrepreneurial potential is learned

rather than born. Moreover, emerging evidence indicates that risk-taking behavior, when combined with

entrepreneurial knowledge and mindset, not only elevates entrepreneurial intention but also strengthens self-

efficacy as a mediating force between traits and behavior (Caputo, Nguyen, & Delladio, 2024). This underscores

a dynamic interaction where experiential learning environments, such as business simulations, reinforce the

confidence and adaptability necessary for sustained entrepreneurial development.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Conceptual Model

Figure 1: Conceptual Model

Independent Variables Dependent Variables

ICTMT 2025 | International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)

ISSN: 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS

Special Issue | Volume IX Issue XXVIII November 2025

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The independent variables in this study provide the foundation for the design of the business simulation module.

In the module, these elements are embedded through experiential cycles that guide students across concrete

entrepreneurial tasks. By integrating these processes, the module enables students not only to acquire

entrepreneurship concepts but also to practice decision-making in realistic scenarios, transforming abstract

knowledge into applied competencies. The conceptual model will apply experiential learning theory (Kolb,

1984), situated learning theory (Lave & Wenger, 1991), and human capital theory (Becker, 1993)

Hypothesis

Direct Effect

H1: Simulation-based instructional design has a positive effect on entrepreneurial traits development.

H2: Entrepreneurial assessment performance has a positive effect on entrepreneurial traits development.

H3: Technology integration has a positive effect on entrepreneurial traits development.

H4: Student engagement has a positive effect on entrepreneurial traits development.

H5: Facilitative teaching practices have a positive effect on entrepreneurial traits.

H6: Institutional supports have a positive effect on entrepreneurial traits development.

Mediating Effects of Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy may contribute to entrepreneurial traits development. Students with higher self-efficacy are more

likely to persist in entrepreneurial tasks, embrace challenges, and translate learning into entrepreneurial action

(Newman et al., 2023). Therefore, self-efficacy is expected to mediate relationship between the independent

variables and entrepreneurial traits development.

H7a: Self-efficacy mediates the relationship between simulation-based instructional design and entrepreneurial

traits development.

H7b: Self-efficacy mediates the relationship between entrepreneurial assessment performance and

entrepreneurial traits development.

H7c: Self-efficacy mediates the relationship between technology integration and entrepreneurial traits

development.

H7d: Self-efficacy mediates the relationship between student engagement and entrepreneurial traits

development.

H7e: Self-efficacy mediates the relationship between facilitative teaching practices and entrepreneurial traits

development.

H7f: Self-efficacy mediates the relationship between institutional support and entrepreneurial traits

development.

Overall Mediation Effect

While each independent variable contributes to entrepreneurial traits development directly, it is proposed that

their collective influence is significantly enhanced through self-efficacy. In other words, the module’s design,

assessments, technology, engagement, pedagogy, and institutional support are most effective when they also

strengthen students’ confidence in their entrepreneurial abilities.

H8: Self-efficacy mediates the overall relationship between the independent variables and entrepreneurialtraits

ICTMT 2025 | International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)

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development among MARA TVET students.

Future Direction

As this study is conceptual in nature, future research should focus on empirical validation of the proposed

business simulation module. Quasi-experimental studies are needed to examine the extent to which simulation-

based influences entrepreneurial self-efficacy and traits over time (Chang et al., 2025; Lee & Kim, 2024). Such

investigations would provide evidence of the sustainability of outcomes suggested by this conceptual framework.

Furthermore, future empirical research should investigate the role of peer collaboration, social networks, and

cross-disciplinary learning in strengthening entrepreneurial mindset development within simulation activities

(Chang et al., 2025; Randall et al., 2025). Additionally, studies focusing on instructor competencies, facilitator

training, and institutional support structures would help to determine how educational ecosystems shape the

scalability and transferability of business simulation modules (Maneerattanasak & Shotlersak, 2023; Primario,

Rippa, & Secundo, 2024).

Finally, exploring the impact of cultural, socioeconomic, and institutional variations on simulation-based

entrepreneurship education could provide valuable insights into best practices for diverse student populations

(Wan, 2025; Akhtaruzzaman et al., 2024).

CONCLUSION

This study highlights the importance of business simulation as a pedagogical tool to enhance entrepreneurial

traits among MARA TVET students (Bellotti et al., 2023; Hung & Huang, 2022). Grounded in experiential

learning, situated learning, and human capital theories, and incorporating self-efficacy as a mediating factor, the

research emphasizes the combined influence of pedagogical design, technology integration, and human support

on entrepreneurial development (Ahmad & Fazal, 2022; Newman et al., 2022).

By providing students with authentic, risk-free environments to practice decision-making, problem-solving, and

strategic thinking, business simulation module fosters critical entrepreneurial traits such as creativity,

proactiveness, risk-taking, and perseverance (Halim, Rahman & Nasir, 2021; Tan & Lim, 2023). The anticipated

findings contribute theoretically by extending understanding of how self-efficacy mediates experiential learning

in entrepreneurship education (Lee & Kim, 2024; Newman et al., 2022). Practically, validated module offers a

structured, scalable, and contextually relevant tool for TVET students’ readiness for entrepreneurial ventures

(Almahry et al., 2022; Sabuncu & Karacay, 2023).

Ultimately, this research aligns with Malaysia’s national agenda to cultivate innovative, adaptable, and

entrepreneurial graduates capable of thriving in uncertain business landscapes (Economic Planning Unit, 2025;

Majlis Amanah Rakyat, 2021). The study sets a foundation for future educational innovations, policy

formulation, and the broader adoption of simulation-based learning to bridge the gap between theory and practice

in entrepreneurship education (Randall et al., 2025; Chang et al., 2025).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to Associate Professor Dr. Juhaini binti Jabar

and Dr. Murzidah binti Ahmad Murad, my main supervisor and co-supervisor, for the invaluable guidance,

support, patience, expertise and encouragement throughout this research journey. Special thanks go to my

parents, family, colleagues and peers for the encouragement, constructive feedback, and motivation throughout

the research process.

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