ICTMT 2025 | International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)
ISSN: 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS
Special Issue | Volume IX Issue XXVIII November 2025
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Challenges and Opportunities for Gender-Inclusive Public Transport
Policies in Southeast Asian Economies
Lay Hong Tan
1*
, Syaiful Rizal Hamid
1
, Boon Cheong Chew
1
, Cun Fui, Tan
2
1
Fakulti Pengurusan Teknologi dan Teknousahawanan, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka,Centre of
Technopreneurship Development (CTeD), 75450 Ayer Keroh, Melaka, Malaysia
2
Multimedia University Faculty of Information Science and Technology (FIST) Jalan Ayer Keroh Lama,
Melaka, 75450 Bukit Beruang
*
Corresponding Author
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.92800013
Received: 10 November 2025; Accepted: 21 November 2025; Published: 18 December 2025
ABSTRACT
Public transportation systems in Southeast Asia are vital for economic growth and social equity; however, they
often fail to address the unique needs of women and marginalised genders. This results in safety concerns,
accessibility barriers, and restricted mobility, limiting their participation in education, employment, and public
life. This study explores the challenges and opportunities for implementing gender-inclusive public transport
policies in Southeast Asian economies, focusing on Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam.
This study uses existing literature, case studies, and policy frameworks to identify the main socio-cultural,
economic, and infrastructure barriers. These include harassment, poor infrastructure, and a lack of gender-
separated data. It also highlights opportunities for innovation, including gender-responsive urban planning,
technological advancements such as safety apps and real-time tracking, and community engagement initiatives.
Policy reforms, such as stricter anti-harassment laws and subsidies for women’s transportation, are critical for
fostering inclusivity. Public-private partnerships and awareness campaigns further enhance the potential for
equitable transportation systems. These findings underscore the need for collaborative efforts among
governments, the private sector, and civil society to create safe, accessible, and sustainable transportation
systems. By addressing the unique mobility needs of women and marginalised genders, Southeast Asia can
promote social equity, economic development, and inclusive urbanisation in the region. This study contributes
to the growing discourse on gender-inclusive transportation by offering actionable insights for policymakers and
stakeholders in the region.
Keywords: Transportation systems, Southeast Asia, economic growth, social equity, gender.
INTRODUCTION
Public transportation systems in Southeast Asia constitute essential infrastructure for economic and social
development; however, they consistently fail to address the needs of women and marginalised genders. Recent
studies highlight a concerning paradox: despite urbanisation increasing the demand for mass transit, these
systems are designed from a male-centric perspective that neglects fundamental gender differences in mobility
patterns and safety requirements (Ng & Acker, 2024). The repercussions are significant; across ASEAN capitals,
68-92% of women report altering their travel behaviour or avoiding certain routes due to harassment concerns
(ASEAN Gender Policy Institute, 2024), resulting in what scholars describe as "mobility deprivation" with
measurable impacts on economic participation (Gekoski et al., 2023). Furthermore, barriers such as safety,
cultural norms, and inadequate infrastructure disproportionately affect women and marginalised groups, limiting
their mobility and public engagement. This study examines the challenges and opportunities for advancing
gender-inclusive public transport policies in Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam,
focusing on the sociocultural, economic, and infrastructural factors influencing women’s transit experiences.
ICTMT 2025 | International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)
ISSN: 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS
Special Issue | Volume IX Issue XXVIII November 2025
Page 121
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Public transport in the Philippines serves as a vital resource for millions of people; however, mobility and safety
remain elusive for women. A 2024 update to the Action Aid survey revealed that 90% of women in Metro Manila
still feel unsafe on buses, up from 88% in 2017 (Action Aid, 2024; Mohanty, 2020). The absence of gender-
disaggregated data complicates the design of inclusive transportation systems. Despite this, gender-responsive
transport planning initiatives, such as well-lit bus stops and designated seating areas, have been successful in
enhancing women’s safety and accessibility (Borker, 2022). New pilots, such as AI-enabled CCTV in MRT
stations (DOTR, 2025) and female-driven jeepneys (Borker, 2024), show promise but require policy support for
scaling.
When integrated with community engagement and awareness initiatives, these measures effectively challenge
cultural norms and foster enhanced gender equity in public transport. Krung Thep Maha Nakhon, commonly
referred to as Bangkok, constitutes a crucial component of Thailand's public transport infrastructure. However,
incidents of harassment and assault at inadequately illuminated bus stops and train stations continue to raise
significant safety concerns. A 2024 survey indicated that 72% of female commuters reported experiencing some
form of harassment (Bangkok Metropolitan Administration, 2024). Recent studies have revealed that although
safe spaces with seating areas and security personnel have been implemented, only 18% of transit stations
currently adhere to international standards for gender-sensitive design (ADB, 2025). This situation is further
compounded by cultural norms that discourage women from travelling alone at night, with 56% of women
reporting familial restrictions on evening mobility (UN Women Thailand 2024).
Urban centres in Vietnam, such as Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, face similar challenges despite experiencing
rapid modernisation. Although innovative, the women-only bus program in Hanoi currently serves less than 20%
of the major routes and is hindered by peak-hour overcrowding, which diminishes its efficacy (Vietnam Ministry
of Transport, 2025). A study conducted in 2024 revealed that 65% of female students modified their educational
choices because of concerns regarding transportation safety (Hanoi University, 2024). In rural regions, traditional
gender roles continue to restrict mobility options, with 63% of women in Mekong Delta communities reporting
the necessity of male accompaniment for long-distance travel (World Bank, 2025). Recent initiatives have
demonstrated the potential to address these systemic issues. Thailand's 2024 Gender-Responsive Transit
Initiative has allocated $15 million to enhance lighting and surveillance at 200 high-risk stations (The Nation,
2025). Vietnam's "Safe Journey" program, initiated in 2024, integrates women-only carriages with public
awareness campaigns that have reached two million citizens (VNExpress, 2025). However, experts emphasise
that technological and infrastructural solutions must be complemented by community-based interventions to
achieve enduring change (Joshi et al., 2025).
Addressing these challenges necessitates a multisectoral approach that encompasses policy reforms, community
engagement, and investment in gender-sensitive infrastructure. Women and other marginalised genders in
Southeast Asia face entrenched sociocultural norms, economic disparities, and insufficient infrastructure that
hinder their access to public transportation. However, there are also significant opportunities for innovation and
reforms. Road safety can be achieved by integrating gender-responsive urban planning, technological innovation,
community engagement, and inclusive transport systems. Policy reforms, such as stricter enforcement of anti-
discrimination laws and subsidies for women's transportation, are essential to ensure inclusivity. Partnerships
across sectors and awareness initiatives contribute to developing functional and equitable transportation systems.
This study explores these challenges and opportunities by utilising case studies and existing literature to provide
insights for policymakers and other stakeholders. These findings underscore the necessity of effective
collaboration among governments, the private sector, and civil society to ensure that transport systems are safe,
inclusive, and sustainable
Challenges to Gender-Inclusive Public Transport In Southeast Asia
Safety Issues
Women and marginalised individuals in Southeast Asia face significant safety challenges when using public
transportation. Issues such as harassment, assault, and insufficient surveillance significantly restrict mobility. In
Malaysia, 65% of women reported experiencing harassment on trains and buses, particularly in poorly lit stations
and overcrowded vehicles (World Bank, 2024). Similarly, in Jakarta, 92% of female commuters face harassment,
ICTMT 2025 | International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)
ISSN: 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS
Special Issue | Volume IX Issue XXVIII November 2025
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prompting the implementation of women-only train carriages. However, this intervention only reduced incidents
by 18% during peak hours (Campisi et al., 2025; JICA, 2024). The situation is even more concerning in the
Philippines, where 91% of women in Metro Manila have experienced harassment on buses, often manifesting as
groping and verbal abuse (UP School of Urban Planning, 2024).
Systemic infrastructural deficiencies significantly exacerbate safety risks, extending beyond isolated incidents.
In Thailand, 74% of women deliberately avoid poorly illuminated bus stops and train stations after dark because
of safety concerns (Chulalongkorn University, 2024). In contrast, Vietnam's implementation of women-only
buses has demonstrated potential; however, these services currently cover only 22% of Hanoi's routes and
frequently experience overcrowding, thereby diminishing their overall effectiveness (GIZ Vietnam, 2024). These
persistent safety challenges have profound societal implications and limit women's access to education,
employment, and public life.
Although certain emerging solutions have demonstrated potential, they require scaling to achieve full efficacy.
The implementation of real-time tracking systems, exemplified by Malaysia’s MySafeTransit app, resulted in a
27% reduction in emergency response times (The Star, 2025). Infrastructure enhancements, such as Jakarta’s
"Light Up Transit" initiative, have led to a 41% decrease in harassment incidents at upgraded stops (Jakarta
Globe, 2024). Furthermore, enhanced legal enforcement measures, including Thailand’s 2024 Anti-Harassment
Decree, have introduced stringent penalties for offenders (Bangkok Post, 2025). However, in the absence of
comprehensive policy reforms and active community engagement, these measures have remained fragmented.
A holistic approach that integrates technology, infrastructure upgrades, and cultural change is imperative to
ensure safe and accessible public transportation for all.
Cultural and Social Norms
In numerous rural communities, traditional gender roles significantly constrain women’s mobility. Societal
expectations dictate that women should primarily manage household responsibilities, thereby severely limiting
their access to education, employment, and public spaces. Transport planning frequently neglects these norms
and women’s specific needs. In Southeast Asia, cultural and social norms profoundly influence women’s
mobility and their access to public transportation. Traditional gender roles often assign domestic responsibilities
to women, greatly restricting their movement and travel opportunities, particularly in rural regions. For example,
in Indonesia, societal expectations prohibit women from travelling alone at night, thereby limiting their
educational and employment opportunities (Singh, 2020). Approximately 50% of the global female population
perceives public transportation as unsafe and unsuitable. This perception further reduces mobility options,
especially in Vietnam, where cultural notions of safety and propriety restrict women's nighttime movement. In
the Philippines, deeply ingrained gender norms that view women as homemakers discourage their use of public
transportation for work or educational purposes (Jabar et al., 2024). Similar challenges are present in Thailand,
where cultural conventions restrict women from travelling alone, particularly in urban areas such as Bangkok
(Pongutta et al., 2024). These norms have also influenced transport planning, which seldom considers women's
specific needs, such as safe and accessible infrastructure for caregivers or those travelling with children. To
address these cultural barriers, infrastructure development must be complemented by community engagement
and awareness campaigns that challenge traditional gender roles and promote gender equity. Integrating gender
perspectives into policies and urban planning can assist Southeast Asian nations in designing transport systems
that ensure that women and marginalised genders can fully participate in public life.
Inadequate Infrastructure
Women in Southeast and East Asia encounter significant mobility inequality, with public transportation
infrastructure frequently inadequately designed to meet their needs. For example, insufficient lighting at bus
stops and overcrowded vehicles, coupled with a lack of separate seating and compartments, disproportionately
affect women's sense of comfort and safety (Loukaitou-Sideris, 2014). The inadequacy of infrastructure,
particularly in terms of gender-inclusive public transportation, presents a substantial barrier in Southeast Asia.
Many transport systems fail to address the priorities and needs of women and marginalised genders, particularly
in terms of safety, accessibility, and convenience. In Malaysia, environments that compromise women's safety
and comfort include poorly lit bus stops, train stations, and overcrowded vehicles (Rashid et al., 2019). Indonesia
ICTMT 2025 | International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)
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faces challenges with public vehicles that lack the necessary gender segregation or gender-based compartments,
potentially exposing women to sexual predation. In the Philippines, the absence of last-mile connectivity—safe
routes from bus stops to homes—disproportionately affects women who often travel with children or heavy
loads. Similarly, in Thailand, inadequate lighting and surveillance at bus stops render the transport infrastructure
unsafe for women, particularly at night (Noor & Iamtrakul, 2023). Vietnam's public transport system is
characterised by overcrowding and limited coverage, especially in rural areas, where women-only buses are often
inaccessible to residents. These challenges not only restrict women's mobility but also exacerbate their access to
education, employment, and healthcare. Addressing these issues necessitates the adoption of gender-responsive
urban planning, which includes well-illuminated and well-constructed drop locations, gender-specific
enclosures, and seamless last-mile connectivity, all of which collectively contribute to a safe and secure public
transport system for women.
Economic Barriers
Women in Southeast Asia generally have lower income levels, making transport affordability a significant
concern. Elevated fares and restricted access to subsidised transport options further constrain mobility. These
findings underscore the numerous economic barriers that impede women's access to public transportation in
Southeast Asia, thereby exacerbating gender inequality in mobility. Owing to wage disparities and limited
employment opportunities, women in the region are more likely to earn less, making transportation costs a critical
challenge. In Malaysia, high public transport fares disproportionately disadvantage low-income women,
particularly those employed in informal sectors that often lack daily commuting options (Hidayati et al. 2020).
Similarly, in Indonesia, women from rural areas face mobility constraints due to insufficient financial resources
to access public transport, which limits their opportunities for education and employment. The absence of
subsidised transport options in the Philippines forces many women to choose between essential expenses and
commuting costs, further restricting their mobility (Chant 2013). In Thailand, affordability remains a challenge,
as low-income women frequently rely on informal transport modes that are less safe and reliable. Although
Vietnam's public transport system has expanded, it remains inaccessible to many rural women because of high
costs and limited coverage (Uteng, 2012). These economic challenges not only hinder women's access to
education, healthcare, and employment but also perpetuate cycles of poverty. To address these issues, policy
interventions should include reducing ticket costs for women and implementing a range of demand- and supply
side solutions such as financial assistance and affordable gender-sensitive options.
Lack of Gender-Disaggregated Data
Policymakers frequently lack access to data on the utilisation of transport systems by women and marginalised
genders. This deficiency poses a significant challenge to the development of targeted interventions. The absence
of gender-segregated data constitutes a major barrier to creating gender-inclusive public transportation systems
in Southeast Asia. Without comprehensive data on the travel behaviours of women and marginalised genders,
policymakers cannot understand their specific needs. In Malaysia, the lack of statistics on women's travel patterns
and safety concerns has hindered the development of targeted interventions, such as improved lighting or
increased surveillance in high-risk areas (Joshi, 2022). Similarly, in Indonesia, the scarcity of gender-specific
data has impeded the evaluation of interventions such as women-only train carriages. In the Philippines, gender-
disaggregated data are considerably less available than in other Commonwealth nations, limiting the ability to
design gender-responsive transport policies, including safe waiting areas and last-mile connectivity solutions
(Padawangi, 2022). Thailand faces similar challenges with insufficient data on women's mobility patterns and
safety issues, particularly in rural areas. Furthermore, there is a lack of gender-disaggregated data to assess the
impact of women-only buses or other gender-sensitive measures on transport planning in Vietnam (Yeoh, 2016).
Addressing this data gap requires systematic collection and analysis of gender-disaggregated data to inform
evidence-based policies and interventions. Incorporating gender considerations into transport data can facilitate
the development of more inclusive transport systems in Southeast Asia, thereby promoting transport equity.
Opportunities for Gender-Inclusive Public Transport Policies
Gender-Responsive Urban Planning
Adopting a gender-sensitive approach to urban planning is essential for addressing the specific needs of women
ICTMT 2025 | International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)
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and marginalised gender groups. Implementing safety measures, such as designing well-lit bus stops, providing
separate seating, and ensuring last-mile connectivity, is crucial (Cervero 2014). Gender-sensitive urban planning
is vital for inclusive public transportation in Southeast Asia, particularly in Malaysia. By integrating feminist
approaches into urban infrastructure design and policymaking, it is possible to address the unique mobility needs
of women and marginalised gender groups. In Malaysia, projects such as well-lit bus stops and separate seating
areas on trains have enhanced safety and accessibility for women (Cervero et al., 2017). In Jakarta, Indonesia,
the introduction of women-only train carriages aims to combat harassment; however, broader improvements are
needed to ensure last-mile connectivity and safe pathways for women. In Metro Manila, Philippines, gender-
responsive planning has led to increased safety and comfort for women through safe waiting areas and improved
lighting at transport hubs (Philippine Daily Inquirer, 2019). Thailand has implemented safe spaces at bus stations
in Bangkok, featuring benches and security officers, although scaling up such initiatives presents challenges
(Wright, 2023). The introduction of women-only buses in Hanoi, Vietnam, exemplifies gender-sensitive
planning; however, the limited service coverage and overcrowding highlight the urgent need for expansion.
These efforts demonstrate how gender-responsive urban planning can create safer and more inclusive
transportation systems. Prioritising women's needs will help address the inequities prevalent in urban
infrastructure development through the provision of safe pathways, childcare facilities, environmentally friendly
amenities, and disability-accessible designs in public transport systems.
Technological Innovations
Technological innovations have significant potential to revolutionise gender-inclusive transportation systems.
The implementation of mobile applications for reporting harassment, real-time bus tracking, and digital payment
systems can enhance safety and convenience in public transport. Transformative opportunities exist for
technological advancements to improve gender-inclusive public transportation in Southeast Asia. Mobile
applications, including safety apps and real-time tracking systems, enable women to report harassment and
monitor their journeys. In Malaysia, for instance, applications such as Women’s Safety allow users to notify
authorities and share their locations during emergencies, thereby facilitating safety in public transport
(Bęczkowska & Zysk, 2021). Conversely, Indonesia has introduced digital platforms that enable women to report
harassment on trains and buses, empowering them to voice their concerns and seek redress. Services such as
Grab in the Philippines have introduced female-only ride options, providing safer alternatives for female
passengers (Biana et al., 2023). In Thailand, where public transport is predominantly male-dominated, real-time
bus and train tracking systems have been implemented to help women identify safer and less crowded transport
options. Similarly, Vietnam is adopting technology with mobile applications that provide real-time information
on bus schedules and routes, although challenges persist owing to limited internet access in rural areas (Huu &
Ngoc, 2021). These innovations not only enhance safety but also improve accessibility and ease of use for
women. Southeast Asian countries can leverage technology to overcome systemic barriers and develop inclusive
transportation systems. Ensuring equitable access to these technologies for low-income and rural populations is
crucial for achieving gender equity in public transportation.
Community Engagement and Awareness
Their involvement in transport planning is crucial because it ensures that their needs are considered.
Additionally, awareness initiatives challenge cultural norms and promote gender equity (Panda et al., 2024).
Community engagement and awareness campaigns are important in this regard. Transport planning must evolve
by incorporating these traditionally underrepresented demographics to improve the policy outcomes. For
instance, in Malaysia, community workshops have provided women with a platform to express safety concerns
regarding lighting and transport hubs, resulting in enhancements such as improved lighting and increased
surveillance at transport hubs (Harumain et al., 2020). In Indonesia, awareness campaigns are being conducted
to address cultural practices that restrict women's freedom of movement, thereby enabling their fuller
participation in public life. Grassroot organisations in the Philippines have collaborated with local governments
on safety audits of public transport systems, offering recommendations to enhance the safety of bus stops and
pathways (Mijares et al., 2014). To address harassment in public transport, Thailand has implemented public
education programs to raise awareness and educate commuters on anti-harassment laws, fostering a culture of
respect and accountability. In Vietnam, community forums have engaged women from rural areas, soliciting
their input on transport planning (Toan & Van, 2019). These initiatives not only raise awareness about gender
ICTMT 2025 | International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)
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equity but also help build trust with communities and decision-makers. This collective effort enables Southeast
Asian nations to develop a transport system that is safer, more inclusive, and responsive to the needs of all users
by focusing on community engagement and awareness.
Policy Reforms
Governments should consider adopting national policies, such as gender quotas in transport planning, subsidies
for women's transportation, and stringent enforcement of anti-harassment laws. However, without policy
reforms, gender-inclusive public transport in Southeast Asia remains improbable. Notable examples of
successful reforms include Malaysia, where the implementation of stricter anti-harassment laws and women-
only train carriages positively impacted the safety of female commuters (Gekoski et al., 2015). In Indonesia, the
imposition of gender quotas on transportation planning committees favourably influences women's participation
in decision-making processes (Amraeni et al., 2020). In the Philippines, counterintuitive measures have
introduced subsidies for women's transportation, thereby reducing public transportation costs for low-income
commuters. Policies, such as the requirement for well-lit bus stops and increased surveillance, have enhanced
women's safety, particularly at night (Han and Resurreccion 2008). In Vietnam, the introduction of women-only
buses in Hanoi presents a challenge in terms of expanding coverage. These reforms demonstrate the potential of
policy interventions to create safer and more inclusive transportation systems for women. However, their success
is contingent on effective implementation, adequate funding, and ongoing monitoring. Implementing gender-
sensitive policies ensures that the unique mobility needs of women and marginalised genders are addressed,
thereby promoting social equity and economic development throughout Southeast Asia.
Public-Private Partnerships
Government-private sector-NGO collaborations can foster the innovation and investment necessary for gender-
inclusive transportation. Internationally, some services, such as the ride-hailing service Grab, have started
offering women-only services in Indonesia and the Philippines (Wadud, 2020). Public-private partnerships (PPP)
have enormous potential for innovation, with incentives for gender-inclusive public transport investment across
Southeast Asia. Governments, private companies, and NGOs must work together to address systemic barriers
and forge pathways for access to women and marginalised genders. Ride-hailing services such as Grab in
Malaysia have teamed up with local authorities to provide women-only ride choices for female passengers, thus
making it safer for women (Tarife, 2017). For example, Indonesia adopted similar initiatives, where private
companies contributed to the implementation of surveillance cameras and emergency response systems in public
transport facilities (Pindarwati & Wijayanto, 2015). For instance, in the Philippines, the government and private
sector have partnered to fund and design gender-responsive infrastructure, such as well-lit bus stops and safe
waiting areas. Real-time tracking systems using private sector innovations for buses and trains have added safety
and convenience for women in Thailand. Vietnam has partnered with NGOs to initiate a campaign to increase
awareness and implement training programs for transport staff to promote a culture of respect and inclusion
(Truong 2017). Through these partnerships, transport systems are improved, and sustainability is ensured through
shared resources and expertise. By encouraging collaboration between the public and private sectors, Southeast
Asian countries can develop safer, more accessible, and gender-inclusive public transportation networks.
DISCUSSION
The examination of gender-inclusive public transport policy in Southeast Asia highlights both regional
commonalities and significant context-specific variations. Among the barriers confronting women and
marginalised genders in Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam are safety concerns,
cultural norms, inadequate infrastructure, economic constraints, and the absence of gender-disaggregated data.
However, responses to these challenges vary considerably, reflecting differences in political commitment,
resources, and cultural contexts. This analysis contrasts the situations in these five countries, illustrating the
progress achieved, the challenges that persist, and the insights gained.
In response to pervasive harassment on public transportation, Malaysia implemented women-only carriages on
trains in Kuala Lumpur in 2010. This initiative significantly improved the safety of women using public
transport, with 60% of women reporting a reduction in harassment incidents (Ceccato and Loukaitou-Sideris
ICTMT 2025 | International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)
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2022). These carriages were clearly marked and monitored by CCTV, providing a secure environment for
women, particularly during peak travel hours. However, challenges such as overcrowding and inconsistent
coverage persist, highlighting the need for infrastructure enhancements and stricter enforcement of anti-
harassment legislation. In 2012, Jakarta introduced a fleet of women-only buses to address safety concerns and
boost female ridership. Managed by the city's public transport authority, these buses offer a safe and comfortable
travel option for women, especially during late-night hours. A study observed that 90% of women felt safer using
these buses, which corresponded to a 20% increase in female ridership (Mateo-Babiano 2016). Nevertheless, the
initiative faces limitations owing to restricted routes and insufficient buses, underscoring the need for expanded
coverage and investment. Gender-responsive transport planning, including well-lit bus stops, separate seating
areas, and enhanced surveillance, is essential.
These measures were implemented in collaboration with non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and
community groups to improve women’s safety and accessibility. Following these modifications, a 2019 survey
indicated that three of four women reported feeling more secure when using public transportation (Van et al.,
2014). However, for low-income women, the lack of last-mile connectivity and affordable options, such as
shared taxis or auto-rickshaws, continues to pose a barrier despite these efforts. In Bangkok, safe spaces have
been introduced at bus stops, featuring seating areas, security personnel, and emergency call buttons. Initiated in
2020, these spaces have received positive feedback, with 80% of women expressing increased confidence in
using public transportation (Pongprasert & Kubota, 2019). Nevertheless, the initiative is limited to specific areas,
and its expansion is constrained by insufficient funding. In 2017, Hanoi introduced female-only buses to address
harassment and enhance the safety of women passengers. These buses, operated by the city’s public transport
authority, have contributed to a 30% reduction in harassment incidents (Nguyen et al. 2025). However, access
remains a significant issue, particularly in rural areas, where coverage is limited and healthcare facilities are
overcrowded.
In Hanoi, Vietnam, the implementation of women-only buses has demonstrated potential despite their limited
reach and issues with overcrowding, highlighting the need for broader infrastructure enhancements. Conversely,
Thailand introduced safe spaces at select bus stops in Bangkok to protect women from violence. Although these
measures are confined to specific areas (Limthongsakul et al. 2017), they have effectively reduced harassment
incidents and increased female ridership (Turner, 2013). Nevertheless, both initiatives have encountered
challenges in ensuring their safety. Similarly, women-only buses in Jakarta, Indonesia, raise concerns. UN
Women reported a successful initiative in Malaysia, where women-only train carriages contributed to 60% of
women feeling safer when using public transport for work or educational purposes. Nonetheless, many women
avoid public transportation after dark (Nguyen et al., 2025). Traditional gender norms in the Philippines suggest
that women should remain at home, discouraging the use of public transport. In Vietnam, cultural perceptions of
safety and propriety restrict women's mobility. These cultural restrictions are deeply rooted in Southeast Asia.
For instance, in Indonesia, traditional gender roles may deter women from travelling alone, particularly at night,
thereby limiting their educational and employment opportunities. Addressing these issues requires not only
infrastructure upgrades but also increased awareness and community engagement to challenge entrenched gender
norms and promote equity. The lack of coverage, including female-specific buses, is beyond the reach of women
in rural areas. To fill these infrastructural voids, gender-responsive urban planning is needed, incorporating well-
lit and accessible transport junctions, separate seating arrangements, and improved last-mile connectivity.. For
example, Vietnam suffers from an overloaded public transport system, with men often accompanied by children
and/or carrying heavy loads (Lim 2022). Thailand’s transport infrastructure is inadequate, with insufficient
lighting and surveillance, making bus stops unsafe, particularly at night. In Indonesia, women are often subjected
to harassment in public transportation, with no compartments separating them from men. In the Philippines, the
lack of last-mile connectivity poses a significant problem for women, who are more likely to find rides in unsafe
spaces. Poor infrastructure is a limiting factor in gender-inclusive public transport in Southeast Asia. In Malaysia,
shady bus stops and overcrowded infrastructure, along with economic limitations, can be addressed through
policy mechanisms such as subsidised fares for women, targeted financial assistance programs, and the creation
of affordable, gender-sensitive transport services. Affordability challenges are particularly pronounced for low-
income women, who resort to less safe and sustainable private transport services (Amrapala & Choocharukul,
2019). While Vietnam's public transport system has been expanding, many women in rural areas cannot afford
it, which limits their travel for educational and employment purposes. In the Philippines, the lack of subsidised
transport options forces most women to compromise between non-negotiable expenses and commuting costs,
ICTMT 2025 | International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)
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further restricting their mobility.
Thailand faces transportation challenges in Southeast Asia. In Malaysia, excessively high public transport fares
disproportionately affect low-income women employed in the informal sector. Women residing in rural areas of
Indonesia face financial constraints that limit their access to public transportation, exacerbating the economic
barriers to public access in these regions. Technological advancements not only enhance safety but also improve
convenience and accessibility for women (Prasertsubpakij and Nitivattananon, 2012). Vietnam has similarly
embraced technology, with mobile applications offering real-time information on bus schedules and routes,
although Internet access remains a challenge. Thailand has implemented real-time tracking systems for buses
and trains, which enable women to plan their routes more effectively. Additionally, stations have been
repurposed to allow passengers to report harassment on train and bus systems, facilitating the communication of
concerns or seeking redress. In the Philippines, ride-hailing services such as Grab have introduced women-only
options, providing female passengers with safer alternatives. These services also enable users to inform
authorities of incidents and their locations during emergencies, thereby enhancing public transport safety.
In Indonesia, digital information technologies offer transformative options for improving gender-inclusive public
transportation in Southeast Asia. For instance, in Malaysia, mobile applications focused on women's safety
facilitate access to affordable public transportation. Policy measures and public-private partnerships (PPPs)
should address the need for gender-sensitive, sustainable public transport systems in Southeast Asia. For
example, in Malaysia, the enforcement of anti-harassment laws has been strengthened, and women-only train
carriages have been introduced to ensure the safety of female commuters (Joseph et al., 2014). In Indonesia,
gender quotas have been established within transport planning committees to ensure the inclusion of women's
perspectives in decision-making. The Philippines has implemented subsidies for women's transportation to assist
low-income women. In Thailand, policies have advocated for well-lit bus stops and increased surveillance,
resulting in enhanced safety for women, particularly at night (Noomnual & Shendell, 2017). Despite the ongoing
challenge of expanding coverage, the launch of women-only buses in Hanoi exemplifies how policy
interventions can promote a safer and more inclusive transportation system. Therefore, it is imperative to ensure
effective implementation, adequate funding, and continuous monitoring of the program.
CONCLUSION
Southeast Asia presents a complex and interconnected landscape of challenges and opportunities for developing
gender-inclusive public transportation policies. Such policies are crucial for promoting social justice, fostering
development, and achieving sustainable urbanisation in the region. The challenges include issues of safety and
security, cultural factors, inadequate infrastructure, economic constraints, and lack of gender-disaggregated data.
Case studies from Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam demonstrate that these challenges
can be addressed through innovative solutions, policy reforms, and cross-sector collaborations.
Initiatives such as women-only train carriages in Malaysia, buses in Indonesia and Vietnam, and designated safe
spaces at bus stops in Thailand represent targeted yet promising efforts to enhance the safety, mobility, and
accessibility of female users. Technological advancements, including mobile applications for reporting
harassment and real-time tracking systems, have made public transportation safer and more convenient for
women. Policy reforms, such as stricter enforcement of anti-harassment laws and subsidies for women's
transportation, have been pivotal in fostering inclusivity. Public-private partnerships have facilitated investment
and innovation, ensuring the sustainability of these initiatives. However, several challenges persist despite this
success. Issues such as overcrowding, limited coverage, and inadequate infrastructure continue to hinder the
effectiveness of gender-inclusive transport policies, leaving some individuals excluded from their benefits.
Additional obstacles to equity include cultural norms that restrict women's mobility and economic barriers that
limit their access to transportation. A comprehensive strategy is required that incorporates gender considerations
in urban zoning, leverages technological advancements, and fosters partnerships among the government, private
sector, and civil society. Ultimately, implementing gender-responsive urban planning, improving infrastructure,
and promoting community engagement and awareness will enable the region to establish safer, more inclusive,
and equitable transport systems. Ensuring equitable access to these systems, particularly for low-income and
rural populations, is crucial for achieving gender equity and sustainable development. Therefore, gender-
inclusive public transportation is not only a matter of social justice but is also essential for economic growth and
ICTMT 2025 | International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)
ISSN: 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS
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urbanisation. By addressing the specific mobility needs of women and marginalised genders, Southeast Asia can
lead the way toward a more equitable and sustainable future.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to express their heartfelt gratitude to the Ministry of Higher Education and UTeM for the
financial support provided through the FRGS grant secured under grant number FRGS/1/ 2024/ SS01/UTEM/
02/11 (NO UTEM: FRGS-EC/1/2024/FPTT/F00603).
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