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International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS) | ISSN: 2454-6186
DOI: 10.47772/I0JRISS | ICICM 2025 - Conference Proceedings | Volume IX Issue XXIX November 2025
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A Critical Shari‘ah -Linguistic Analysis of the Term (Al-Mukhābara)
Using Artificial Intelligence
Assoc Prof. Dr. Omar bin Md Din
1
, Assist Prof Dr. Ibrahim Wanni Tohyala
2
1
Faculty of Languages, Al-Madinah International University – Kuala Lumpur – Malaysia,
2
Faculty of Islamic Sciences, Al-Madinah International University – Kuala Lumpur – Malaysia.
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.92900007
Received: 16 November 2025; Accepted: 22 November 2025; Published: 17 December 2025
ABSTRACT
This study critically evaluates the performance of three AI applications—ChatGPT, Gemini, and DeepSeek—in
conducting a specialized academic analysis of the prohibited Islamic financial term "Al-Mukhābara," employing
a descriptive, analytical, and critical methodology to assess their ability to define the term's linguistic and Shari‘ah
meanings, explore the connection between them, and, most importantly, handle conflicting scholarly opinions by
attempting reconciliation or preference. The findings reveal a significant disparity in the applications' capabilities,
highlighting both promising aspects and considerable limitations, particularly in their effectiveness when dealing
with classical texts and performing advanced juristic reasoning, thereby providing a clear perspective on the
current advantages and disadvantages of using these AI tools for specialized academic research in Islamic law.
Keywords: Al-Mukhābara, Artificial Intelligence, Linguistic Meaning, Shari‘ah Meaning.
INTRODUCTION
The past few years have witnessed a widespread proliferation of various Artificial Intelligence applications, with
increasing public reliance on them to manage their daily tasks and work. Their use is not limited to individuals
but has extended to researchers in various specializations, who have used them in preparing their theoretical and
applied scientific research. Thanks to these applications, a significant amount of research has been accomplished
concerning the analysis and discussion of issues, analysing questionnaires and data, and summarizing books and
research, extracting important information from them. This experience is modern and requires more testing on
these modern electronic applications to be able to judge them, their performance, and the quality of their reading
and analysis of texts, especially Arabic texts. Semantic linguistic studies are among the most important studies in
the modern era, particularly when linked to Islamic texts such as the Noble Qur'an and the Prophetic Hadith.
Scholars of Islamic law still differ in determining many Shari‘ah rulings mentioned in these two primary sources,
and this difference is due to their variation in determining the correct meaning of some terms and structures that
may be ambiguous in meaning or differ in their connotations. This has led to multiplicity and division in
jurisprudential schools, which may be a source of good for the nation of Muhammad, peace be upon him, if the
difference is based on sound and correct principles and rules, whether linguistic or Shari‘ah.
Research Objectives:
1. Clarify the linguistic meanings mentioned by the selected Artificial Intelligence applications through their
analysis of the term "Al-Mukhābara".
2. Clarify the Shari‘ah meanings mentioned by the selected Artificial Intelligence applications through their
analysis of the term "Al-Mukhābara".
3. Explain the aspects of reconciliation or preference performed by the Artificial Intelligence applications
after their analysis and discussion.
4. Evaluate the performance of Artificial Intelligence in the analysis, and mention the positives and negatives
observed in its reading and discussion of the opinions regarding the term "Al-Mukhābara".
5
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International Conference on Islamic Contemporary Issues and Management 2025
International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS) | ISSN: 2454-6186
DOI: 10.47772/I0JRISS | ICICM 2025 - Conference Proceedings | Volume IX Issue XXIX November 2025
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The research relied on the descriptive, analytical, and comparative methodologies, due to their suitability for the
research topic. The term "Al-Mukhābara," mentioned in the Hadiths of the Messenger of Allah - may Allah's
prayers and peace be upon him - and characterized by conflicting linguistic and Shari‘ah meanings, was selected.
The opinions and views concerning it were gathered and presented to three famous AI applications for analysis
and discussion. Subsequently, the comparative approach is used to compare the analysis of each application from
several aspects and axes, showing the differences between them. Then, the analytical approach will be used to
examine the applications' analysis and evaluate the quality of their extrapolation of opinions and views, their
discussion of evidence and proofs, the accuracy of their reading of the opinions, and their ability to reconcile or
prefer between them. Finally, their performance will be critiqued, highlighting the positives and negatives in all
aspects they analyzed and discussed for the selected terms.
Analysis of the Term (Al-Mukhābara)
This word is mentioned in a Hadith narrated from Jābir ibn ‘Abdullāh: "He prohibited Al-Mukhābara,
AlMuḥāqala, Al-Muzābana, and selling fruits until their suitability (for harvest) becomes apparent, and that they
should not be sold except for Dinar." (Al-Bukhari, 1311 H, Number: 2091)
After presenting the opinions and views regarding the term (Al-Mukhābara) to the selected AI applications for
analysis and discussion, a number of important matters emerged, which will be clarified according to the analysis
axes designated in the research.
First Topic: Semantic Linguistic Analysis:
The three applications provided generally good analyses of this term, tracing it back to its fundamental linguistic
meaning. The (Gemini) application was good in mentioning six origins for this term, which are (Al-Farāhīdī,
4/258. Ibn Fāris, 1979 AD, 2/239, Al-Nawawī, 1392 H, 10/192-193, Al-Zamakhsharī, 1/349, and Ibn Al-‘Aṭṭār,
2006 AD, 2/1117):
Application Name
Semantic Linguistic Analysis
Preference
Critical Observations
Gemini
Mentioned six origins for the term:
1. Al-Khabr - with a Fatha on the Kha
and Sukun on the Ba: Meaning the
crop itself. A farm is also called Khabr.
2. Al-Khabīr: Meaning the farmer, also
called the tenant farmer (Akār),
because he prepares the land.
3. Al-Khubra - with a Damma on the
Kha: Meaning the portion, i.e., the
share of each contracting party. Abu
'Ubayd interpreted it as a portion of
fish or meat. The application
mentioned that Al-Jawhari reported
that.
4. Al-Khibār - with a Fatha on the Kha
and a light Ba: Meaning soft, stony
land. The three applications did not
mention the reason for linking soft land
to this prohibited sale; it appears that
specifying it with soft land is because
such land has uncertain outcomes
The only
application
that preferred a
single opinion
in the
linguistic
meaning,
stating that
AlMukhābara
is farming for
a known
portion of what
the land
produces,
which is the
third of the
mentioned
opinions,
namely Al-
Khubra
meaning the
portion.
1. The (Gemini) application
did not mention the
sources it derived these
origins from, except for
the third opinion, nor did
it mention page numbers
for each piece of
information, except at the
end of the analysis.
2. It excelled in
comprehensively
investigating all possible
linguistic semantic origins
for the term Al-
Mukhābara.
3. It did not correctly prefer
between the opinions
regarding the linguistic
meaning except for the
(Gemini) application only.
Preference or
5
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International Conference on Islamic Contemporary Issues and Management 2025
International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS) | ISSN: 2454-6186
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regarding crop spoilage, hence the
uncertainty
reconciliation in such
matters is important
and ambiguity arise from this aspect, and
Allah knows best.
5.Al-Khibārā: Meaning soft land.
6.Khaybar: Because the Prophet, peace
be upon him, contracted with them to
cultivate the land of Khaybar on the
condition that they get half of its yield,
which is the opinion of Ibn AlA'rābī
and some jurists. The verbal noun is
derived from the verb.
for determining the true
meaning of the term and
then linking it to the
Shari‘ah terminological
meaning.
Application
Name
Semantic
Linguistic
Analysis
Critical Observations
DeepSeek
Mentioned four
linguistic origins
from the six
previous ones: Al-
Khabr, Al-
Khubra,
AlKhibār, and
Khaybar.
1. Mentioned only four origins.
2. Distinguished by mentioning sources
and pages, stating that Al-Khalīl
mentioned the origin Khabr (Al-
Farāhīdī, 4/258), AlJawhari mentioned
Al-Khubra (Al-Jawharī, 1987 AD,
2/641), Ibn Manẓūr mentioned
AlKhubār from Ibn Al-A'rābī (Ibn
Manẓūr, 1993 H, 4/228), and Ibn
Qutaybah mentioned Khaybar (Ibn
Qutaybah, 1397 H, 1/196). 3. This
application showed inconsistency when
attempting preference; it posed a
question but left it unanswered without
preferring any opinion.
Application
Name
Semantic Linguistic Analysis
Preference
Critical Observations
Chat GPT
Mentioned the general origin of the root
(Kha B R) quoting from Ibn Fāris (Ibn Fāris,
1979, 2/239), that its meanings revolve
around two main principles:
First: Knowledge of a thing, from which
{And none can inform you like a Khabīr
(WellAcquainted)}.
Second: Softness and pliability, including
AlKhibār; which is soft land.
It also mentioned the other origins: Al-
Khabīr as mentioned in Al-Ṣiḥāḥ (Al-
Jawharī, 1987 AD, 2/580), and Al-Khubra
which is the portion, as mentioned in Lisān
al-‘Arab (Ibn Manẓūr, 1993, 4/228), and
Preferred tracing
Al-Mukhābara
back to two
origins: AlKhabr
meaning the
portion, and Al-
Khabīr
meaning the
farmer; the
reason for
preference being
that both
connect to the
1. Mentioned only four
origins.
2. Mentioned sources and
pages.
3. The (Chat GPT)
application was
distinguished by quoting
from Ibn Fāris in stating
that the root (Kha B R)
revolves around two
main principles, and the
book Maqāyīs alLughah
is one of the important
fundamental linguistic
5
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International Conference on Islamic Contemporary Issues and Management 2025
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Khaybar as mentioned by Ibn ‘Abd al-Barr
(Ibn ‘Abd alBarr, 1387 H, 2/320).
nature of the
agricultural
transaction. It
did not prefer a
single opinion.
sources concerning
linguistic semantic
etymology of words.
Second Topic: Shari‘ah Semantic Analysis:
The three applications do not differ regarding Shari‘ah meaning of the term Al-Mukhābara, stating that it Shar'ī
signifies leasing land to a farmer skilled in agriculture to improve and cultivate it in exchange for taking a portion
of its produce; half, third, or quarter, according to the agreement.
Application
Name
Shari‘ah Semantic Analysis
Preference
Critical Observations
Gemini
Linguists and jurists differ regarding its
similarity to Al-Muzāra'ah (sharecropping)
or not, into two opinions:
First Opinion: The majority of Shafi'is view
that Al-Mukhābara and Al-Muzāra'ah are
close in meaning, both being transactions on
land for a portion of its crop produce.
However, the difference lies in:
AlMuzāra'ah: The seed is from the
landowner. Al-Mukhābara: The seed is from
the worker (the farmer) (Al-Nawawī, 1392
H, 10/193).
Second Opinion: Some Shafi'is and a group
of linguists held that they have the same
meaning (Ibn ‘Abd al-Barr, 1387 H, 2/321).
Did not
prefer
between
the two
opinions.
1-Lack of concern by the (Gemini)
application in mentioning sources.
2-Lack of concern for preference.
DeepSeek
Did not
prefer
between
the two
opinions.
1-(DeepSeek) is the one who
mentioned the sources of the two
opinions.
2-Lack of concern for preference.
Chat GPT
Al-Mukhābara and Al-Muzāra'ah are close
in meaning, both being transactions on land
for a portion of its crop produce. However,
the difference lies in: Al-Muzāra'ah: The
seed is from the landowner. Al-
Mukhābara: The seed is from the worker
(the farmer) (Ibn Qudāmah, 1997 AD,
5/553).
Mentioned
only the
first
opinion.
Did not mention the difference of
opinion regarding the similarity
between Al-Mukhābara and
AlMuzāra'ah, contenting itself
only with the opinion that
differentiates between them, and
did not mention the second
opinion.
Third Topic: Reconciliation or Preference, and Linking Linguistic Meaning to Shari‘ah Meaning:
The research found that only the (Chat GPT) application attempted to reconcile and link the linguistic and
Shari‘ah semantic differences, although it did not prefer a single opinion. The other applications did not concern
themselves with mentioning reconciliation or preference between the multiple opinions in the linguistic meaning
and linking them to the Shari‘ah meaning. The (Chat GPT) application stated the following:
It is clear from tracking that the linguistic meaning establishes the Shari‘ahunderstanding:
1. Considering Al-Mukhābara as Mu'ākara (i.e., sharing in work and portion) corresponds with the
Shari‘ahmeaning which involves giving land to a worker in exchange for a known portion of the output.
2. Deriving it from Al-Khabīr, meaning the farmer, indicates that the worker is the one undertaking the work,
which explains why the seed is from the worker.
5
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3. Deriving it from Al-Khubra (the portion) agrees with the Shari‘ahrequirement that the portion must be
known and not unknown to avoid uncertainty (Gharar).
This application attempts to reconcile a set of opinions to explain the meaning of Al-Mukhābara linguistically
and Shar'ī, linking the two meanings together. It is as if it says that this naming admits several origins, the most
important of which are two: Al-Khabīr (the farmer) and Al-Khubra (the portion), both of which suit the Shari‘ah
meaning. Accordingly, it did not prefer a single opinion.
In truth, upon examining the opinions and tracking the linguistic semantic origins and linking them to the Shari‘ah
meaning, we find that all the opinions are close and strong, and preferring between them is somewhat difficult.
The meaning of Al-Mukhābara known to linguists and Hadith commentators is: an agreement between the
landowner and the one who undertakes its cultivation and improvement that the farmer takes a part of what the
land produces; half, third, or quarter, as they agree upon. In Al-‘Ayn: "Al-Mukhābara linguistically: cultivating
agricultural crops for half or third" (Al-Farāhīdī, 4/258). In Maqāyīs al-Lughah: "Al-Muzāra'ah for half, third,
less, or more, is called Al-Khabr, and it is said: Al-Mukhābara is derived from the name Khaybar" (Ibn Fāris,
1979 AD, 2/239). The multiple linguistic meanings all relate to this Shari‘ahmeaning of Al-Mukhābara; whether
its relation is to the worker farmer, or to the type of land, or to the crop itself, or to the specified portion - which
is a portion with an unknown outcome - or its relation to the region of Khaybar.
However, the research sees that the closest of the linguistic semantic origins is the "portion." In the contract of
Al-Mukhābara, the share of each contractor is clarified, with uncertainty about the outcome of this share in terms
of safety or lack thereof in the future, because the portion pertains to both contracting parties. Al-Mukhābara
comes on the pattern of "Mufā‘ala" (form III), and the principle is that preference should be given to a matter
related to both parties, not to one party. If it were related to the farmer, it has no relation to the landowner, and if
related to the land, it has no relation to the farmer worker, and Allah knows best.
It is noticeable that such preference and its evidence were not addressed by the three applications, showing their
lack of depth in analysis, reading opinions and views, understanding them, critiquing them, and correctly
preferring between them.
Among the important matters not addressed by the three applications is that the "Mufā‘ala" form in Al-Mukhābara
conforms to the implication of this morphological pattern; which is the occurrence of the action from both parties.
Because both contracting parties contracted for this type of prohibited contract, which involves uncertainty,
ambiguity, and unclear outcomes, and they consented to it, thus the act of contracting occurred between the two
parties.
RESEARCH CONCLUSION
The research reached a number of results, which are:
1. The three applications were able to trace the selected terms back to their linguistic roots with varying
degrees of accuracy and depth, but they varied in mentioning and documenting sources, which is
extremely important in peer-reviewed scientific studies.
2. The ChatGPT application excelled in combining linguistic and Shari‘ah meanings, and attempting to build
a semantic structure linking the linguistic origin to the jurisprudential terminological concept. The Gemini
application also excelled in preferring between opinions in linguistic meanings.
3. The analyses showed aspects of deficiency in all applications in terms of lacking deep critical aspects and
providing an analysis that comprehensively addresses jurisprudential and linguistic differences with an
integrated vision.
4. The research revealed a weakness in some applications in the morphological interpretation of the
morphological structure (namely the "Mufā‘ala" form in Al-Mukhābara) despite its significant impact on
determining the Shari‘ah meaning.
5. It became clear that using Artificial Intelligence to analyze the terms of Prophetic Hadith can contribute
to approximating meanings and simplifying differences, but it does not replace deep scientific scrutiny
and authentic verification in authoritative sources.
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6. This research indicated the importance of combining automated analysis with specialized human
verification to ensure sound understanding, correct foundationalization, and deep linkage between
language and Shari‘ah, especially in complex texts with sensitive jurisprudential implications.
7. It revealed the applications' shortcomings when reconciling or preferring between different opinions in
linguistic or Shari‘ah meaning, and that they still need deep training on the correct principles of
reconciling or preferring between opinions in Arabic texts.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the preceding analysis, discussion, and comparison between the three Artificial Intelligence
applications, and the evaluation of these applications' performance in analysis, presenting opinions, and
reconciling or preferring between conflicting views, and after presenting the diverse results of what was tested in
these applications, the research recommends the following:
1. Paying attention to developing Artificial Intelligence algorithms in the field of linguistic and Shari‘ah
studies, to make them more capable of dealing with historical jurisprudential and linguistic contexts,
especially by familiarizing them with the correct principles and rules for semantic and Shari‘ah analysis,
and the principles and rules for reconciling and preferring linguistic and Shari‘ah semantic differences.
2. The necessity of supervision by specialized researchers over the use of Artificial Intelligence tools in
analyzing Islamic texts, and avoiding complete reliance on them without accurate, critical scientific
review.
3. Focusing, in the development of linguistic models, on understanding the morphological, grammatical,
and semantic structures of Shari‘ah terms, and linking them to classical eloquent Arabic usage as found
in dictionaries and Hadith commentaries.
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