INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)

ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XXX December 2025 | Special Issue

Comparative Analysis of Traditional and Modern Daʿwah Methods

in Southeast Asia

Mohammad Ishaque Husain¹,Hussein Ali Abdullah Al-Thulaia²,Mohammed Abdulaziz Eltigani³

,Mostafa Hassan Mohamed El Khayat⁴,Muhammad Kamrul Islam Bhuiyan^5*

^1,2,3,4Faculty of Contemporary Islamic Studies (FKI) University Sultan Zainal Abidin (UniSZA),

Malaysia

⁵Fakulti Pengajian Kontemporari Islam (FKI) Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin (UniSZA) Malaysia

^*Corresponding Author

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.930000053

Received: 10 December 2025; accepted: 17 December 2025; published: 27 December 2025

ABSTRACT

Daʿwah in Southeast Asia is undergoing a profound transformation as traditional, institution-centred modes of

Islamic propagation intersect with rapidly expanding digital forms of religious communication. While

pesantren, pondok schools, and ulama-led networks have historically nurtured spiritually disciplined,

community embedded, and epistemically coherent models of daʿwah, the rise of social media has introduced

new modalities characterised by decentralised authority, algorithmic visibility, and emotionally charged micro-

content. This study employs a conceptual analysis framework to compare these divergent paradigms, drawing

on a comprehensive body of scholarship spanning Islamic pedagogy, digital religion, and Southeast Asian

anthropology. The findings reveal a widening gap between the depth-oriented, relational pedagogy of

traditional daʿwah and the breadth-oriented, attention-driven logic of digital daʿwah. While digital platforms

democratise access and enhance outreach, they also risk theological superficiality, ideological fragmentation,

and the erosion of classical scholarly authority. Conversely, traditional methods maintain doctrinal integrity

and foster durable communal bonds but struggle to engage digital-native generations. To reconcile these

tensions, the study proposes a Hybrid Daʿwah Integration Framework (HDIF) that combines digital outreach

with structured mentorship, institutional verification, and community reintegration. The research underscores

the need for adaptive yet grounded daʿwah models that preserve theological authenticity while responding to

contemporary communicative realities. Future research is encouraged to empirically evaluate hybrid initiatives

and examine their long-term effects on spiritual formation, religious literacy, and community cohesion among

Southeast Asian Muslims.

Keywords: Daʿwah, Southeast Asia, Islamic Propagation, Digital Islam, Religious Authority

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

For centuries, daʿwah in Southeast Asia has been deeply rooted in well-established religious institutions that

served as the primary vehicles for transmitting Islamic knowledge and cultivating communal piety. In

Indonesia, pesantren—traditional boarding schools centred around charismatic kyai—functioned not only as

educational hubs but also as spaces for ethical formation and community leadership, shaping religious life

across the archipelago (Bruinessen, 1999; Dhofier, 1999). Similarly, pondok institutions in Malaysia and

southern Thailand have long preserved classical texts, Sufi pedagogies, and Shāfiʿī legal traditions, providing a

stable scaffolding for intergenerational religious continuity (Abdullah, 2018; Yusoff, 2015). Throughout the

Malay world more broadly, Sufi orders such as the Naqshbandiyya and Shādhiliyya played a pivotal historical

role in anchoring daʿwah practices within spiritual lineages characterised by mentorship, disciplined ritual

training, and embodied models of piety (Azra, 2004). These institutional forms collectively upheld a system in

which religious authority was centralised, pedagogically rigorous, and embedded within local community

structures.

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)

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However, the rapid expansion of digital communications—especially social media—has profoundly disrupted

these longstanding modalities of Islamic propagation. The emergence of what scholars call “digital Islam”

introduces new patterns of religious consumption marked by decentralised authority, algorithmic visibility, and

user-driven modes of engagement that bypass traditional scholarly gatekeeping (Bunt, 2018; Lim, 2019).

Online preachers, influencers, and anonymous content creators now reach audiences across Malaysia,

Indonesia, Brunei, and Singapore with unprecedented speed, reshaping how Muslims learn, interpret, and

embody their faith. This transformation raises fundamental questions about the durability of traditional

pedagogical structures, the fragmentation of religious authority, and the shifting dynamics of spiritual

socialisation in an era where religious meaning is increasingly mediated through screens rather than through

lived communal experience (Weber, 2020; Mir-Hosseini, 2021).

Problem Statement

Although traditional and modern forms of daʿwah increasingly coexist within the religious landscape of

Southeast Asia, scholarly engagement with the tensions between these two modes remains surprisingly limited.

Much of the existing literature treats them as separate analytical domains—traditional daʿwah being examined

through historical, institutional, or pedagogical lenses (Azra, 2004; Bruinessen, 1999), while modern digital

daʿwah is explored primarily through studies of media consumption, online authority, and youth religiosity

(Bunt, 2018; Lim, 2019; Weber, 2020). This bifurcated approach obscures the deeper theoretical and practical

contradictions that arise when both systems operate simultaneously in the same social environment. For

instance, traditional daʿwah relies on hierarchical structures of legitimate religious authority and long-term

spiritual mentorship, whereas digital daʿwah decentralises authority and privileges immediacy, visibility, and

emotional resonance—conditions that scholars describe as conducive to theological simplification and

ideological volatility (Kadri, 2022; Mir-Hosseini, 2021). Moreover, while traditional institutions historically

fostered cohesive, embodied communities rooted in shared rituals and face-to-face instruction, digital

platforms tend to produce fragmented, individualised networks of belief that lack the stabilising influence of

communal accountability (Turkle, 2011). The absence of comparative studies addressing how these contrasting

modalities shape spiritual formation, community cohesion, and the risk of doctrinal fragmentation represents a

critical gap in contemporary scholarship—one that this study seeks to confront directly.

Research Questions

This study addresses the following questions:

1.

How do traditional and modern daʿwah methods differ in their pedagogical approaches, authority

structures, and communal impact in Southeast Asia?

2.

3.

What are the social and theological implications of the increasing dominance of digital daʿwah?

How can traditional and modern methods be integrated into a coherent hybrid model suited for

contemporary Muslim communities?

Objectives of the Study

•

To compare structural, pedagogical, and ideological characteristics of traditional vs. modern daʿwah.

To analyse their consequences on religious authority, community life, and spiritual growth.

To propose a hybridised daʿwah model informed by regional realities.

Significance of the Study

This study is significant because it advances scholarly understanding at the intersection of Islamic

communication, digital religion, and Southeast Asian socio-religious transformation by offering a rare,

integrated analytical framework for comparing traditional and modern daʿwah practices. Existing research on

Southeast Asian Islam tends to adopt either a historical–institutional perspective that emphasises pesantren,

pondok networks, and Sufi lineages (Azra, 2004; Bruinessen, 1999), or a digital-era perspective that focuses on

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)

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online preachers, algorithmic visibility, and the mediatisation of religious authority (Bunt, 2018; Lim, 2019;

Weber, 2020). Few works, however, interrogate how these modalities interact, collide, or reshape one another

within contemporary Muslim life. By directly addressing this gap, the present study provides a theoretical

bridge between descriptive accounts of daʿwah practices and the normative concerns raised by scholars

regarding authenticity, fragmentation, and the erosion of traditional scholarly gatekeeping in digital

environments (Kadri, 2022; Mir-Hosseini, 2021). The analysis thus contributes to broader debates on the future

of religious authority, the pedagogical integrity of Islamic transmission, and the sustainability of communal

cohesion in an era where religious engagement is increasingly individualised and digitally mediated (Tee &

Hamim, 2022; Turkle, 2011). In doing so, the study offers both conceptual clarity and practical relevance for

policymakers, religious institutions, and researchers seeking to navigate the rapidly evolving landscape of

Islamic propagation in Southeast Asia.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Traditional Daʿwah in Southeast Asia

Traditional daʿwah in Southeast Asia has been rooted in institutional and pedagogical frameworks that

emphasise hierarchical authority, long-term moral formation, and embodied religious practice. Scholarship

shows that religious transmission in the Malay-Indonesian world was closely tied to ulama-led institutions

such as pesantren, pondok, and Sufi orders, which functioned as integrated socio-religious ecosystems rather

than mere educational centres (Azra, 2004; Bruinessen, 1999; Feener, 2007). Central to this model was

personalised mentorship between santri and kyai, shaping moral conduct, spiritual discipline, and social

identity beyond formal instruction (Dhofier, 1999; Lukens-Bull, 2010). Textual mastery through the kitab

kuning tradition, combined with communal rituals such as zikir, halaqah, and Friday sermons, reinforced

collective responsibility and doctrinal continuity under ulama authority (Bruinessen, 1999; Feener, 2007; Noor,

2017).

However, this model faces structural constraints in contemporary contexts. Its slow, apprenticeship-based

pedagogy limits scalability and engagement with urbanised, mobile, and digitally oriented youth (Abdullah,

2018). The relatively insular reach of pesantren and pondok institutions often confines influence to specific

communities, while gendered institutional norms have, in some settings, restricted women’s access to classical

daʿwah pathways (Feillard & Marcoes, 1998).

Modern and Digital Daʿwah

Digital media has significantly transformed daʿwah in Southeast Asia, giving rise to what scholars term

“Digital Islam”, characterised by online religious expression, mediated authority, and algorithm-driven

communication (Bunt, 2018; Lim, 2019; Weber, 2020). Digital daʿwah proliferates across platforms such as

YouTube, Instagram, and TikTok, where visually engaging and emotionally resonant content attracts youth

audiences and blends spirituality with personal branding, producing hybrid forms of religiosity (Lim, 2019).

A central shift in this context is the decentralisation of religious authority. Traditional mechanisms of scholarly

certification and institutional gatekeeping are often bypassed, as visibility and influence are shaped by

algorithms, virality, and audience engagement rather than credentials (Weber, 2020). This enables broader

access to religious discourse but also facilitates misinformation, theological oversimplification, and

ungrounded interpretations of Islam (Mir-Hosseini, 2021; Kadri, 2022).

The digital environment further prioritises brevity, affect, and visual appeal, encouraging the reduction of

complex Islamic teachings into simplified, shareable formats (Bunt, 2018). Such practices risk theological

reductionism, where depth and contextualisation are sacrificed for viral reach, potentially leading to shallow

forms of religiosity among digital-native audiences (El-Nawawy & Khamis, 2009).

Additionally, platform algorithms reinforce echo chambers and ideological homogeneity, limiting exposure to

diverse scholarly perspectives and intensifying polarisation (Törnberg, 2018). This dynamic has been linked to

identity-driven and fragmented online religiosities shaped by charismatic influencers rather than communal

pedagogical traditions (Hirschkind, 2012; Tee & Hamim, 2022). Despite these challenges, digital daʿwah also

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)

ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | Volume IX Issue XXX December 2025 | Special Issue

expands access to religious knowledge and youth engagement, particularly during periods of social disruption,

though concerns over authority, commodification, and doctrinal authenticity remain salient (Scharbrodt, 2021).

Shifts in Religious Authority

Digital technologies have significantly restructured religious authority in Southeast Asian Muslim societies.

Traditionally, Islamic authority was grounded in pesantren lineages, Shāfiʿī jurisprudential training, and state

institutions such as fatwa councils, ensuring hierarchical verification and disciplinary rigour (Azra, 2004;

Feener, 2007). The expansion of social media, however, has disrupted these mechanisms by enabling

individuals without formal scholarly training to disseminate religious interpretations widely, thereby

destabilising classical modes of validation (Kadri, 2022; Mir-Hosseini, 2021).

In digital spaces, authority is increasingly shaped by charisma, visibility, and audience engagement rather than

scholarly credentials or lineage (Weber, 2020). This contrasts sharply with pesantren and pondok traditions,

where authority is earned through prolonged study and communal recognition (Bruinessen, 1999; Lukens-Bull,

2010). Consequently, alternative figures such as influencers and lifestyle preachers now compete with, and

sometimes overshadow, traditional ulama, reshaping perceptions of authenticity and trust (Abidin, 2018).

Institutional oversight has also weakened. Established bodies such as Indonesia’s Majelis Ulama Indonesia and

state fatwa institutions in Malaysia and Brunei increasingly compete with digital preachers operating outside

formal control, while pesantren networks face erosion of the teacher–student bond that once ensured doctrinal

coherence (Dhofier, 1999; Noor, 2017; Osman, 2021). Algorithmic logics further complicate authority by

privileging emotionally charged or sensational content over epistemic reliability, producing a pluralised and

unstable religious marketplace with limited mechanisms of scholarly adjudication (Törnberg, 2018;

MirHosseini, 2021).

These transformations contribute to polarisation, individualised religiosity, and sectarian tendencies across

Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore (Hamid, 2014; Slama & Barendregt, 2018), while simultaneously

democratising religious discourse by enabling greater participation from women and youth—highlighting the

ambivalent and multi-directional nature of authority in the digital age (Scharbrodt, 2021).

Community Cohesion and Identity

Community cohesion has traditionally underpinned Islamic life in Southeast Asia, where religious identity was

cultivated through shared rituals, embodied relationships, and intergenerational transmission within mosques,

pesantren, and neighbourhood associations (Hefner, 2001; Lukens-Bull, 2010). Traditional daʿwah operated

within these communal settings, fostering belonging, moral accountability, and social solidarity through

collective practices that generated emotional synchrony and cohesion (Collins, 2004).

The expansion of digital daʿwah, however, shifts religious engagement toward individualised, screen-mediated

environments. Online interactions may simulate community but often lack the depth and reciprocity of

physical bonds, enabling personalised religious consumption while reducing communal obligation and

corrective oversight (Turkle, 2011; Campbell, 2012; Campbell, 2013). In Southeast Asia, digital daʿwah

communities increasingly resemble loose, affective networks or “virtual ummah” formations detached from

local mosques and pesantren, a trend reinforced by algorithmic filtering that limits exposure to diverse

perspectives and intensifies fragmentation (Slama & Barendregt, 2018; Törnberg, 2018).

This shift risks eroding the social capital traditionally generated by Islamic communal life, as digital ties often

remain weak or transient and fail to translate into sustained communal support (Putnam, 2000; Hampton et al.,

2011). Consequently, institutions such as mosques, surau, and pesantren may lose their centrality among

digitally oriented youth (Osman, 2021). At the same time, digital platforms can empower new identity-based

communities, particularly for youth, women, and minorities, offering alternative spaces for religious

expression and learning—though these gains coexist with the risk of thin, hyper-individualised religiosity

detached from collective moral structures (Scharbrodt, 2021).

Gaps in the Literature

Despite extensive scholarship on traditional and digital daʿwah in Southeast Asia, significant gaps persist due

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to their treatment as largely separate fields. Studies on traditional daʿwah—focused on pesantren, pondok, Sufi

orders, and mosque-based pedagogy—emphasise historical continuity, authority, and communal formation

(Azra, 2004; Bruinessen, 1999; Feener, 2007). In contrast, digital daʿwah research highlights online

influencers, platform logics, and the reconfiguration of public piety, stressing democratisation and media

aesthetics (Bunt, 2018; Lim, 2019; Weber, 2020). These literatures rarely intersect, leaving the tensions and

contradictions arising from their coexistence underexplored.

A key gap is the lack of systematic comparative analyses examining how traditional and digital daʿwah jointly

shape religious identity, authority, and learning. Few studies juxtapose the pedagogical depth and communal

embeddedness of traditional models with the immediacy and algorithmic visibility of digital forms, or assess

their epistemological implications for Islamic knowledge and legitimacy (Mir-Hosseini, 2021; Kadri, 2022).

Consequently, questions about how Muslims—especially youth—navigate competing authorities in hybrid

contexts remain unresolved.

The ideological consequences are also insufficiently theorised. While risks such as polarisation and

fragmentation in digital spaces are acknowledged (Törnberg, 2018; Hirschkind, 2012), limited attention is

given to how these dynamics interact with established interpretive institutions, including pesantren, fatwa

bodies, and local ulama councils.

Finally, although innovations like digital pesantren and online fatwa services are documented (Osman, 2021;

Tee & Hamim, 2022), the literature lacks coherent hybrid frameworks that integrate institutional mentorship,

verification, and digital dissemination. Addressing these gaps, the present study advances a comparative

conceptual framework that examines traditional and digital daʿwah in tandem, contributing to a more

integrated understanding of religious transformation in contemporary Southeast Asia.

METHODOLOGY

Research Design

This study adopts a conceptual analysis research design, an approach suited to examining evolving

socioreligious phenomena and synthesising theoretical debates across interdisciplinary literatures. Conceptual

analysis facilitates the interrogation of underlying assumptions, epistemic logics, and the development of ideas

without reliance on primary empirical data (Reynolds, 2017; Pauly, 2019). Given that traditional and digital

daʿwah intersect theology, pedagogy, media studies, and social change, this design provides the analytical

flexibility necessary to address their multidimensional dynamics.

Accordingly, the study employs analytical synthesis, thematic categorisation, and critical interrogation of

epistemic assumptions, drawing on established approaches in digital religion and Islamic communication

studies (Campbell, 2013; Bunt, 2018). By juxtaposing diverse scholarly perspectives, the analysis seeks to

construct an integrative framework that captures the ideological and structural tensions between traditional and

modern daʿwah paradigms, an approach particularly appropriate in the rapidly transforming socio-cultural

context of Southeast Asia (Slama & Barendregt, 2018).

Data Source and Selection Criteria

The data for this study consists exclusively of secondary sources, including peer-reviewed journal articles

(1990– 2024), academic monographs on Southeast Asian Islam, and empirical research addressing religious

authority, pedagogy, and digital media in Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei, and Singapore. The reliance on this

broad temporal scope aligns with best practices for capturing long-term transformations in religious institutions

and communication regimes (Noor, 2017; Feener, 2007).

Inclusion criteria were established to ensure analytical relevance and theoretical robustness:

1. Studies explicitly addressing traditional or modern/digital daʿwah.

2. Works examining religious authority, pedagogical models, community formation, or technological

mediation.

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3. Scholarly contributions offering conceptual, theoretical, or contextual insights, rather than purely

descriptive accounts.

Exclusion criteria were similarly defined:

1. Publications prior to 1990, unless historically foundational, due to limited relevance to contemporary

technological dynamics.

2. Works offering purely descriptive, anecdotal, or non-analytical narratives without interpretive depth.

3. Studies focusing exclusively on regions outside Southeast Asia without theoretical applicability to the

local context.

In total, the reviewed sources reflect a diverse corpus representing Islamic studies, sociology of religion, media

studies, and Southeast Asian anthropology, thereby enabling a comprehensive conceptual synthesis.

Analytical Procedure

The study followed a structured multi-stage analytical process, drawing on established methods of thematic

and conceptual synthesis (Bowen, 2009; Snyder, 2019):

Identification of recurrent themes

Core themes were extracted inductively from the literature, with particular attention to:

1. religious authority

2. pedagogical models and epistemologies

3. community cohesion and identity

4. emotional and affective dimensions of daʿwah

5. technological mediations and algorithmic influences

Comparative mapping

Traditional and modern/digital daʿwah were systematically compared across these thematic categories to

expose points of convergence, divergence, and ideological tension.

Critical evaluation of societal and theological implications

Each theme was analysed to assess broader consequences for Southeast Asian Muslim communities, including

effects on religious literacy, fragmentation, authenticity, and spiritual formation.

Construction of an integrated hybrid framework

Based on insights generated from comparative mapping, the study synthesised a Hybrid Daʿwah Integration

Framework (HDIF) that conceptualises how traditional mentorship structures and digital tools might be

reconciled in practice.

This analytical sequence ensured methodological rigour while allowing for theoretical innovation.

Limitations

While conceptual analysis provides a powerful lens for examining complex ideological and structural shifts,

the methodology is not without its limitations.

1. Absence of primary empirical data: The study’s findings may not fully capture micro-level variations

in daʿwah practices across diverse local contexts, particularly rural communities or marginalised

populations. As conceptual analysis emphasises abstraction and theoretical synthesis, its empirical

generalisability is inherently constrained (Reynolds, 2017).

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2. Limited representation of informal or vernacular religious discourse: Because the research relies

on published sources, spontaneous religious expressions circulating through informal networks, oral

traditions, or private digital spaces remain under-represented.

3. Potential bias toward academic interpretations: Scholarly literature may emphasise concerns about

authority, fragmentation, or technological disruption in ways that differ from lived experiences on the

ground.

Despite these limitations, conceptual analysis remains an appropriate and valuable method for generating

theoretical clarity and addressing gaps in existing daʿwah scholarship.

RESULTS

Pedagogical Contrasts

The analysis reveals a profound divergence in the pedagogical foundations underlying traditional and digital

daʿwah practices in Southeast Asia. Traditional daʿwah is characterised by incremental, apprenticeship-based

learning, in which students gradually internalise Islamic teachings through sustained interaction with teachers

and senior practitioners. This model is embedded within institutions such as pesantren and pondok schools,

where pedagogy is not confined to formal lessons but extends into daily routines, ritual practices, and ethical

discipline (Bruinessen, 1999; Lukens-Bull, 2010). Spiritual formation in these contexts is inherently embodied

and experiential, as learners participate in zikir, halaqah, communal prayers, and the rhythms of pesantren life,

cultivating a holistic sense of religious identity and moral accountability.

In stark contrast, digital daʿwah is anchored in communication logics shaped by the affordances of social

media platforms. It typically emphasises rapid motivational content, concise theological framings, and highly

visual branding strategies, designed to capture fleeting user attention in saturated online environments (Lim,

2019; Bunt, 2018). The pedagogical structure is therefore fragmented and episodic, privileging affective

resonance over sustained contemplation or deep textual engagement. This shift reflects broader transformations

in digitalera learning, where information consumption tends to be modular, emotionally charged, and

algorithmically filtered, raising concerns about the depth, coherence, and long-term retention of Islamic

knowledge (Weber, 2020).

Authority Structures

A second major finding concerns the reconfiguration of religious authority as daʿwah transitions from

traditional to digital spaces. Traditional systems rely on recognised ulama whose authority is grounded in years

of rigorous study, transmission chains (sanad), and community endorsement (Azra, 2004; Feener, 2007). Fatwa

institutions, mosque hierarchies, and pesantren networks historically functioned as regulatory mechanisms that

ensured doctrinal coherence and safeguarded interpretive authenticity.

Digital daʿwah, however, operates according to a vastly different logic. Authority is increasingly shaped by

popularity metrics, such as follower counts, likes, shares, and algorithmic visibility (Mir-Hosseini, 2021;

Kadri, 2022). These forms of “micro-celebrity” religieux (Abidin, 2018) elevate visibility over scholarly

credentials, allowing individuals without formal training to reach wide audiences and influence public

perceptions of Islamic teachings. As a result, the religious landscape becomes increasingly pluralised and

unstable, with competing interpretations circulating freely and with minimal oversight. This shift undermines

the regulatory capacity of traditional institutions and generates a more chaotic interpretive environment in

which users must navigate competing claims to authority without clear epistemic markers.

Community Dynamics

The findings also highlight substantial differences in how traditional and modern daʿwah shape community

formation and social cohesion. Traditional daʿwah practices are rooted in durable communal bonds, fostered

through shared rituals, face-to-face interactions, and intergenerational transmission of religious norms (Hefner,

2001). The mosque, pesantren, and community gathering spaces function as hubs of social capital, facilitating

belonging, moral accountability, and collective identity formation (Noor, 2017). These embodied communities

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reinforce the Islamic ethos of mutual responsibility (takāful) and encourage the cultivation of sustained

spiritual relationships.

Conversely, digital daʿwah tends to generate virtual communities whose connections are often selective,

interestbased, and temporally unstable (Slama & Barendregt, 2018). Social media platforms allow users to

curate personalised religious networks, resulting in fragmented social ties and individualised spiritual identities

that may lack the depth and reciprocity of offline communities (Turkle, 2011). While these digital communities

can provide emotional support and access to diverse perspectives, their ephemeral nature raises questions about

their capacity to replace traditional mechanisms of communal bonding, accountability, and shared ritual

practice.

Measures of Daʿwah Success

The criteria by which daʿwah success is evaluated differ sharply between traditional and digital contexts. In

traditional settings, success is measured through indicators such as moral reform, spiritual depth, and

community responsibility, reflecting the long-term orientation of pesantren pedagogy and the emphasis on

ethical cultivation (Bruinessen, 1999; Feillard & Marcoes, 1998). Success is thus tied to internal

transformation and communal flourishing rather than outward visibility.

Digital daʿwah, however, aligns with metrics prized within social media ecosystems—views, likes, shares,

subscriber counts, and other quantifiable signals of audience engagement (Weber, 2020). These metrics

privilege performance, emotional resonance, and aesthetic appeal over doctrinal depth or transformative

impact. As a consequence, daʿwah risks being reframed from a process of spiritual formation to a form of

content consumption and entertainment, reflecting broader patterns of commodified religiosity in digital

spheres (Mahmood, 2005; Bunt, 2018).

Risks Identified

The analysis identifies several critical risks associated with the rise of digital daʿwah. First, the theological

superficiality resulting from short-form, visually driven content may weaken religious literacy and reduce

complex Islamic doctrines to oversimplified narratives (Lim, 2019). Second, the proliferation of untrained

preachers—empowered by algorithmic amplification and charismatic appeal—raises concerns about

misinformation, sectarianism, and the erosion of scholarly verification systems (Kadri, 2022). Third, the

findings reveal increasing polarisation and ideological fragmentation, as digital platforms reinforce echo

chambers and encourage users to gravitate toward pre-existing beliefs, limiting exposure to diverse scholarly

perspectives (Törnberg, 2018). Finally, digital daʿwah contributes to the commodification of religious

discourse, as preachers adopt branding strategies and influencer-like personas, transforming spiritual guidance

into a marketable product subject to audience demands and platform economies (Abidin, 2018; Hirschkind,

2012).

Taken together, these risks underscore the need for strategies that integrate digital outreach with traditional

scholarly oversight and community-based pedagogical structures.

DISCUSSION

Interpretation of Findings

The overall comparison between traditional and digital daʿwah practices reveals a widening pedagogical and

epistemological divide that reflects broader transformations in how Muslims engage with religious knowledge

in Southeast Asia. Traditional daʿwah—rooted in embodied practice, relational pedagogy, and disciplined

spiritual formation—relies on immersive, long-term learning environments such as pesantren and mosque-

based halaqah (Bruinessen, 1999; Lukens-Bull, 2010). These contexts cultivate character, ethical refinement,

and doctrinal depth through sustained mentorship and communal participation. In contrast, digitally mediated

daʿwah is structured around the temporal rhythms and attention economies of social media, emphasising

brevity, emotional resonance, and rapid dissemination (Lim, 2019; Weber, 2020). While digital platforms excel

at expanding outreach and making religious content accessible to broad and diverse audiences, they struggle to

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reproduce the depth of formation, scholarly discipline, and epistemic continuity characteristic of traditional

models.

This divergence suggests that contemporary Muslims increasingly inhabit a hybrid religious landscape that

does not seamlessly integrate relational, experiential learning with digital consumption practices. Instead,

digital daʿwah tends to augment exposure but rarely supports the deeper pedagogical objectives of Islamic

tradition— an outcome consistent with studies of digital religion globally, which show a pattern of high

visibility but low instructional depth (Campbell, 2013; Bunt, 2018). The implication is not merely one of

differing media formats, but of competing epistemological logics shaping how religious truth, authority, and

identity are constructed and internalised.

Implications for Religious Authority

The findings reveal significant implications for the structure and perception of religious authority. The shift

from ulama-centred models to influencer-driven forms of public religious leadership represents not only a

transformation in authority figures but a fundamental reconfiguration of authority itself. Traditional authority

derives from scholarly training, interpretive lineage (sanad), and institutional endorsement (Azra, 2004;

Feener, 2007). Digital authority, however, is largely shaped by visibility, charisma, and algorithmic

amplification (Kadri, 2022).

This reorientation destabilises interpretive coherence by decoupling influence from expertise. Young Muslims,

in particular, may struggle to differentiate between credentialed scholars and persuasive content creators—a

concern echoed in wider scholarship on religious misinformation and doctrinal fragmentation online

(MirHosseini, 2021). The erosion of classical gatekeeping mechanisms risks fostering interpretive pluralism

unchecked by scholarly verification, potentially generating competing doctrinal claims and fragmenting the

epistemic unity historically maintained through pesantren networks and fatwa institutions.

Implications for Community Cohesion

The shift toward digital daʿwah also carries profound consequences for community cohesion and the social

fabric of Muslim life in the region. Traditional daʿwah fosters collective identities grounded in shared rituals,

intergenerational bonds, and communal obligations (Hefner, 2001; Noor, 2017). These practices create what

sociologists describe as “thick communities,” characterised by durable social ties and strong norms of mutual

responsibility (Collins, 2004).

By contrast, digitally mediated religiosity is frequently individualised, episodic, and weakly reciprocal,

reflecting broader patterns of networked, choice-based community structures in late modernity (Turkle, 2011;

Campbell, 2013). Online religious engagement often produces “affective micro-communities” rather than

stable, embodied collectives, weakening the capacity of religious institutions to cultivate sustained moral

accountability and shared identity. This fragmentation is visible in Southeast Asian contexts, where virtual

communities sometimes overshadow mosque-based or pesantren-based memberships (Slama & Barendregt,

2018). The resulting erosion of communal ethos risks undermining social cohesion, particularly in

multireligious societies where Islamic institutions historically played integrative roles.

Pedagogical Implications

The findings further illuminate critical pedagogical implications. Digital daʿwah tends to prioritise emotional

resonance, instant gratification, and highly memetic forms of theology, shaped by platform logics that reward

shareability over depth (Lim, 2019; Bunt, 2018). These dynamics promote cognitive shallowness and reduce

complex Islamic teachings to aesthetically appealing yet simplified fragments.

In contrast, traditional pedagogies emphasise disciplined study, ethical formation, and sustained mentorship, in

line with classical Islamic educational theory, which frames knowledge acquisition as a moral-spiritual journey

rather than a transactional exchange of information (Dhofier, 1999). The divergence between these pedagogical

models raises questions about how younger generations will acquire the intellectual tools needed to engage

Islamic tradition critically and responsibly. Without integration mechanisms, digital daʿwah risks producing

religious engagement that is broad but thin, emotionally compelling but insufficiently grounded in scholarly

foundations.

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Proposed Hybrid Daʿwah Model

To address these emerging tensions, the study proposes a Hybrid Daʿwah Integration Framework (HDIF),

designed to reconcile the strengths of traditional pedagogy with the affordances of digital communication. The

HDIF comprises four interlocking layers:

1. Digital Outreach Layer: Leveraging short videos, infographics, livestreams, and podcasts to raise

initial awareness and engage digitally oriented audiences, consistent with best practices in digital

religious communication (Weber, 2020; Tee & Hamim, 2022).

2. Mentorship Layer: Linking online followers to verified local scholars, mosque programs, or pesantren

based study circles, ensuring continuity between digital exposure and relational, experiential learning.

3. Institutional Verification Layer: Involving fatwa councils, Islamic universities, and recognised ulama

networks to provide scholarly oversight, curate digital content standards, and maintain doctrinal

coherence.

4. Community Integration Layer: Facilitating periodic offline gatherings, study circles, community

service programs, and halaqah to nurture sustained relationships and strengthen communal bonds.

This hybrid model proposes a shift from competition to complementarity, positioning digital tools as gateways

rather than substitutes for traditional processes of religious formation. By integrating outreach, mentorship,

scholarly oversight, and communal embodiment, the HDIF seeks to ensure that daʿwah retains its theological

integrity, pedagogical depth, and social cohesion while adapting to contemporary communication realities.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrates that the evolving landscape of daʿwah in Southeast Asia is shaped by a profound and

increasingly consequential tension between two competing paradigms of Islamic communication: the deeply

relational, pedagogically rigorous, and community-embedded model characteristic of traditional daʿwah, and

the rapid, affect-driven, and algorithmically mediated model that defines contemporary digital daʿwah. While

digital platforms have democratised access to religious knowledge and enabled unprecedented reach across

demographic and geographic boundaries (Weber, 2020; Bunt, 2018), they simultaneously introduce risks of

theological superficiality, unregulated authority, and heightened ideological fragmentation (Kadri, 2022;

MirHosseini, 2021). Conversely, traditional systems—anchored in ulama authority, disciplined study, and

embodied communal practice—remain unrivalled in cultivating spiritual depth and ethical formation

(Bruinessen, 1999; Dhofier, 1999), yet they face challenges in engaging digital-native generations accustomed

to personalised media ecosystems and rapid content consumption.

The findings underscore that neither paradigm alone is sufficient to address the complex religious, social, and

technological realities of contemporary Muslim life in Southeast Asia. There is a clear need for a hybrid

daʿwah model that integrates the pedagogical depth and scholarly legitimacy of traditional institutions with the

accessibility, adaptability, and communicative power of digital tools. Such a model—supported by frameworks

of institutional verification, digital mentorship, and community reintegration—offers a promising pathway for

preserving theological authenticity while cultivating meaningful engagement with younger audiences

increasingly shaped by digital culture.

Ultimately, sustaining the integrity of Islamic teaching in an era of rapidly shifting media ecologies requires

not only technological adaptation but also renewed attention to the epistemic, pedagogical, and communal

foundations of daʿwah. Without careful integration, the risk remains that digital expansion will come at the cost

of doctrinal coherence, spiritual depth, and the social cohesion that has historically underpinned Muslim

communities in the region.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the findings, the study proposes several actionable recommendations for religious institutions, policy

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makers, and daʿwah practitioners:

1. Strengthen Scholarly Oversight in Digital Spaces: Islamic councils and universities should establish

guidelines and verification mechanisms to ensure doctrinal accuracy in online daʿwah content (Osman,

2021).

2. Develop Hybrid Daʿwah Training Programs: Training modules for preachers should include both

classical Islamic sciences and digital communication strategies, ensuring that ulama can effectively

engage online audiences (Tee & Hamim, 2022).

3. Institutional Collaboration with Influencers: Recognised scholars and institutions should collaborate

with digital preachers to create content that is both appealing and theologically sound, bridging the

credibility gap between offline and online authority.

4. Reinforce Community-Based Learning: Mosques, pesantren, and community centres should

complement digital outreach with embodied practices, mentorship, and communal rituals to maintain

social cohesion.

5. Promote Digital Literacy Among Youth: Educational programs should equip young Muslims with

critical media literacy skills to navigate misinformation, evaluate religious claims, and recognise

credible sources of Islamic knowledge.

Future Research Directions

To build on the conceptual insights presented here, future research should pursue the following avenues:

1. Empirical Evaluation of Hybrid Daʿwah Models: Longitudinal studies are needed to assess how

integrated digital–traditional programs influence spiritual development, religious literacy, and identity

formation among Southeast Asian youth.

2. Audience Reception Studies: Qualitative and quantitative research should examine how different

demographic groups interpret and internalise digital daʿwah content, including gender-based and

socioeconomic variations.

3. Algorithmic Impact on Religious Knowledge: Further investigation into how platform algorithms

shape visibility, authority, and ideological polarisation within Islamic discourse is necessary for

understanding the structural forces guiding digital daʿwah (Törnberg, 2018).

4. Case Studies of Institutional Innovation: Comparative studies of Islamic organisations in Indonesia,

Malaysia, Brunei, and Singapore can illuminate best practices for integrating digital tools into

traditional pedagogical frameworks.

5. Ethnographic Studies of Online Religious Communities: In-depth fieldwork examining virtual

religious groups can shed light on how digital spiritual communities construct meaning, negotiate

authority, and cultivate (or fail to cultivate) communal bonds.

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