The historical narrative of Islam in Terengganu often fails to thoroughly explore the significant role of Arab-

descended ulama in shaping the state's socio-religious landscape. This deficiency creates a gap in understanding

the true dynamics of local Islamic dissemination and institutionalization, leaving many unanswered questions

about the origins and consolidation of religious authority. Ironically, no comprehensive conceptual framework

traditions and religious practices that remain to this day, even though their original identity is often obscured.

These findings necessitate a more critical re-evaluation of the construction of local Islamic history, to ensure a

Beneath Terengganu's image as the 'Abode of Faith' (Darul Iman), lies a layer of religious history that is

sometimes overlooked ironically, in the sole pursuit of glorifying 'local' narratives. The presence of

Arabdescended ulama, whose traces can be found since the 17th century, is often accepted as fact, yet their

contributions are rarely analyzed in depth. It becomes an irritating irony: we know they existed, but we do not

truly understand how they influenced the pulse of society. Why does such a gap exist in local historiography,

underestimated. This void must be filled; otherwise, we will continue to adhere to an incomplete history and fail

to capture the diversity of sources and the dynamism of Islamic identity formation in Terengganu. We need to

look beyond ethnic boundaries, understand the networks of these Arab-descended ulama and how they brought

scholarly traditions from Hadramaut, Egypt, or Hijaz, then adapted them into the unique local context, a process

of assimilation and acculturation far more complex than often portrayed. This study attempts to unravel that

Discussions about Islamization in the Malay Archipelago are fraught with debate. Disputes often revolve around

the origins, period, and parties responsible for bringing and disseminating these sacred teachings. For a long

time, historians like Fatimi (1963) have put forth strong arguments about the role of merchants and preachers

Arab-descended ulama, but tend to be bibliographical in nature, merely listing names and basic contributions

without deeply exploring the power structures or intellectual networks they established. This is a significant

shortcoming. This is because only lists of names are provided, but there is no in-depth analysis of how these

names interacted, how they formed "madrasahs" or schools of thought, or how they influenced broader political

and social structures. Recent works by Mohd Rosli (2019) and Abdul Rahman (2021) attempt to fill this gap,

more boldly examining the role of Arab-descended ulama in politics and education, particularly in resisting

British colonialism and the formation of modern educational institutions. They, at the very least, attempted to

However, there are disagreements regarding the level of "integration" of these ulama into Malay society. Did

they remain influential "outsiders," or did they truly assimilate, bringing their Arab identity into the mold of

There is also an argument that the role of Arab-descended ulama was merely an extension of local ulama who

had been "Arabized" (Ariffin & Mansor, 2022), a view that might too easily encapsulate the complexity of

cultural and intellectual interactions. This seems to deny the unique contributions of the Arab ulama themselves,

instead reducing their role to mere "transmitters" or "reinforcers" of existing traditions. Nevertheless, a growing

consensus is that Arab-descended ulama, through familial and marital networks, successfully integrated into the

Ironically, much academic writing still fails to elaborate in detail how this "integration" mechanism functioned,

or how these networks operated in more specific aspects such as the formulation of fatwas, the establishment of

sharia courts, or even in the customary legal system. This literature review reveals that while the contributions

of Arab-descended ulama are acknowledged, their full profile and impact in Terengganu remain vague,

sometimes contradictory, is shaped into a coherent intellectual framework. Therefore, this method does not

involve any field surveys or interviews, but instead focuses on an in-depth examination of relevant library and

This process begins with the identification and collection of primary and secondary materials. This includes old

manuscripts preserved in national or state archives and university libraries, local historical records, and academic

journals publishing studies on the history of Islam in Terengganu and the Malay Archipelago in general. Each

source is meticulously examined, not just for surface facts, but for "subtexts", deeper implications about power,

influence, and social networks often hidden behind more direct narratives. For instance, a family genealogy

might merely list names, but with a critical lens, it can reveal marriage patterns, power affiliations, and the

The next step involves the process of "deconstruction" and "reconstruction" of existing narratives. We separate

administration, or contributions to religious literature. Each of these themes is cross-referenced against other

evidence, refined, and supported by robust arguments. The goal is to produce a conceptual framework that not

only compiles information but also offers new interpretations, connecting previously disparate points, to paint a

richer canvas of the contributions of Arab-descended ulama in Terengganu. This process is not easy. It is a

continuous cycle of reading, analyzing, hypothesizing, and revising, until a logical and persuasive framework

The contributions of Arab-descended ulama in Terengganu, when critically examined, extend far beyond merely

serving as religious teachers. They were architects. They built the intellectual foundation of the state, a

framework that remains etched to this day. First, the scholarly networks they established formed the backbone

Second, their role in state administration and politics cannot be overlooked. Many of these Arab-descended

ulama became advisors to the Sultan, and some even held positions such as Syeikhul Islam, Syeikhul Ulama or

mufti. They sat alongside power, offering views that shaped government policies on justice, religious law, and

morality. Important decisions often depended on their advice. This provided them with a highly strategic platform

to influence not only spiritual aspects but also the legal and social aspects of community life, further

Third, they did not merely bring "Islam," but "cultured Islam." They did not only teach law; they also introduced

literature, calligraphy, and manners inherited from their homeland. Through the writing of books, poetry, and

sermons, they stimulated intellectualism. Their works, often written in Arabic or Jawi, became important

to a diverse society. They became bridges. They connected universal traditions with local realities, narrowing

Finally, their legacy remains eternal, though often not explicitly named. The scholarly traditions, Sufi practices,

and even the structure of today's religious institutions largely stem from the seeds sown by these ulama. Islamic

higher education institutions, pondok schools, tahfiz centers, community religious schools, and the continuity of

The implications of these findings indeed necessitate a re-evaluation of many old assumptions about the history

of Islam in Terengganu, and perhaps even the entire Malay Archipelago. If Arab-descended ulama played such

a significant role, not merely as teachers, but as social and political architects, then overly simplistic local

narratives need to be re-examined. This means that Terengganu's Islamic identity is not a homogeneous entity

that grew solely from within, but a complex synthesis, a result of encounters and exchanges with other

The concept of identity itself becomes more blurred and intriguing. These Arab-descended ulama, while

maintaining their lineage and perhaps some original cultural characteristics, successfully integrated into Malay

The role of these ulama in popularizing the Shafi'i school of thought and adhering to the Aqidah of Ahlus Sunnah

Wal Jamaah, specifically the Ash'arite and Maturidite schools, in Terengganu was also very prominent. They

were not only disseminators of teachings but also a bulwark of faith. When various other schools of thought

emerged, they became a consistent voice in preserving authenticity. This is a contribution that transcends the

spiritual dimension, as well as an effort to maintain social stability and ideological unity, especially in a society

constantly facing external threats, both political and intellectual. Indeed, their influence in the drafting of fatwas

We need to acknowledge that what we consider local Islamic tradition is often the result of innovations and

of these roots, perhaps we will better appreciate pluralism within Islam and within our own society. This can

lead to healthier dialogue about the role of religion in modern society, and perhaps, prevent attempts to narrow