Reviewing the Implementation of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) Agreement: Progress, Challenges, and Opportunities for Nigeria and Africa

The Lagos Plan of Action and Abuja Treaty serve as foundations for the AfCFTA, which is based on Africa's economic unification goal. Its five-year implementation is evaluated in this research, which also highlights opportunities, advancements, and problems for Nigeria and Africa. The AfCFTA, rooted in Africa’s economic integration agenda, builds on the Lagos Plan of Action and Abuja Treaty. This study assesses its five-year implementation, highlighting challenges, progress, and opportunities for Nigeria and Africa. Drawing lessons from other Regional Trade Agreements, such as the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) Free Trade Agreement (FTA) called AFTA, it explains the difference between AFTA and AFCFTA and why AFTA is making progress.

Implementation, African ,Continental Free, Trade Area, (AfCFTA) Agreement: Progress, Challenges, Opportunities

1. Afreximbank. (2025, June 26). Full implementation of Free Trade Agreement to double intra-African trade by 2035. Nairametrics. https://nairametrics.com/2025/06/26/full-implementation-of-free-trade-agreement-to-double-intra-african-trade-by-2035-afreximbank-president/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Afreximbank. (2025, June 26). Nigeria tops West Africa in intra-African trade with $18.4 billion in 2024. Nairametrics. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. https://nairametrics.com/2025/06/26/nigeria-tops-west-africa-in-intra-african-trade-with-18-4-billion-in-2024-afreximbank/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Africa Sustainability Matters. (2025). Economic report on Africa 2025: Advancing the implementation of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. https://africasustainabilitymatters.com/economic-report-on-africa-2025-advancing-the-implementation-of-the-african-continental-free-trade-areaafcfta/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. African Development Bank. (2025, May 14). 2025 Annual Meetings: Regional corridors as drivers of continental integration. African Development Bank Group. https://www.afdb.org/en/news-and-events/2025-annual-meetings-regional-corridors-drivers-continental-integration-81924 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. African Export-Import Bank (Afreximbank). (2025). Ghana accelerates efforts to boost intra-African trade. https://www.afreximbank.com/ghana-accelerates-efforts-to-boost-intra-african-trade/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. African Union Commission. (n.d.). African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. https://au.int/en/african-continental-free-trade-area [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. African Union Pan-African Payments and Settlement System (PAPSS). (2024, September 19). Significant progress in AfCFTA implementation highlighted at conference. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. https://pap.au.int/en/news/press-releases/2024-09-19/significant-progress-afcfta-implementation-highlighted-conference-s [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. AfriPoli. (2024). Trade infrastructure financing in Africa: an exploration of geopolitical funds for private sector participation. https://afripoli.org/trade-infrastructure-financing-in-africa-an-exploration-of-geopolitical-funds-for-private-sector-participation [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Aigheyisi, O. S., & Iyoha, M. A. (2023). Implications of the African Continental Free Trade Area for Nigeria’s economic growth. Central Bank of Nigeria Research Department. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. https://www.cbn.gov.ng/Out/2023/RSD/Implications%20of%20the%20African%20Continental%20Free%20Trade%20Area.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. ASEAN Secretariat. (2004). ASEAN Protocol on Enhanced Dispute Settlement Mechanism. https://agreement.asean.org/media/download/20141217102933.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Asia Law. (1997). Open Regionalism and Deeper Integration in ASEAN. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. https://asialaw.tripod.com/articles/lawanasean4.html [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Benachenhou, A. (1983). South-South Cooperation: The Lagos Plan of Action and Africa’s Independence. Africa Development / Afrique et Développement, 8(4), 5–19. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Business Day. (2025, March 18). AfCFTA needs $411bn for transport infrastructure to boost trade, says UN. https://businessday.ng/maritime/article/afcfta-needs-411bn-for-transport-infrastructure-to-boost-trade-says-un/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Central Bank of Nigeria. (2023). Implications of the African Continental Free Trade Area for Nigeria’s economic growth. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. https://www.cbn.gov.ng/Out/2023/RSD/Implications%20of%20the%20African%20Continental%20Free%20Trade%20Area.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Chiou, Y.-H. (2010). A two-level-games analysis of AFTA agreements. Journal of Contemporary Asia, 29(1), 1-23. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/186810341002900102 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Chukwubuikem, J.S., Chinedu, A.O., & Queen, O.A. (2021). Weak Institutions and Poor Governance in Nigeria: A Socio-legal Perspective. Africa Journal of Law, Political Research and Administration, 4(2), 61–70. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. CNBC Africa. (2025, July 1). Nigeria hosts IATF 2025 business roadshow. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. https://www.cnbcafrica.com/media/7751375787451/nigeria-hosts-iatf-2025-business-roadshow/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. ECA. (n.d.). History of Africa’s Regional Integration Efforts | United Nations Economic Commission for Africa. Retrieved February 2, 2025, from https://archive.uneca.org/oria/pages/history-africa%E2%80%99s-regional-integration-efforts [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. ECDPM. (2020). The promise of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA). Retrieved from https://ecdpm.org/download_file/161/1116 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Economic Commission for Africa. (2025, April 25). ERA 2025: With effective implementation, the AfCFTA can open alternative markets to sectors. https://www.uneca.org/stories/era-2025-with-effective-implementation,-the-afcfta-can-open-alternative-markets-to-sectors [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Economic Commission for Africa. (2025, March 17). AfCFTA benefits will be across sectors – Economic Report on Africa 2025. https://www.uneca.org/stories/afcfta-benefits-will-be-across-sectors-%E2%80%93-economic-report-on-africa-2025 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Economic Confidential. (2025, June 27). Nigeria’s exports to African countries decline by N631.5bn. https://economicconfidential.com/2025/06/nigeria-exports-decline/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. ERIA. (2013). Standards Harmonisation in ASEAN: Progress, Challenges and Way Forward. ERIA Discussion Paper No. 2013-30. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. https://www.eria.org/ERIA-DP-2013-30.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. ERIA. (2021). Towards Seamless Trade Facilitation in ASEAN. Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia. https://www.eria.org/uploads/media/Research-Project-Report/2021-08-Towards-Seamless-Trade-Facilitation-ASEAN/6_Ch.1-Summary-Report.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. ERIA. (2023). ASEAN’s Initiatives for Free Trade in East Asia under AEC. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/24761028.2021.1902068 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. Federal Ministry of Industry, Trade and Investment. (2025, May 27). FG inaugurates AfCFTA tool to strengthen trade competitiveness. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

37. https://nannews.ng/2025/05/27/fg-inaugurates-afcfta-tool-to-strengthen-trade-competitiveness/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

38. Federal Ministry of Industry, Trade and Investment. (2025a). Nigeria advances commitment to AfCFTA with inauguration of central coordination committee. https://fmino.gov.ng/nigeria-advances-commitment-to-afcfta-with-inauguration-of-central-coordination-committee/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

39. Federal Ministry of Industry, Trade and Investment. (2025b). Nigeria signs ECOWAS tariff offer: Advancing AfCFTA implementation. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

40. https://www.frontierafricareports.com/article/nigeria-signs-ecowas-tariff-offer-advancing-afcfta [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

41. Focus on Africa. (2025, April 19). Nigeria breakthrough in African trade with African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) implementation. https://www.focusonafrica.info/nigeria-breakthrough-in-african-trade-with-african-continental-free-trade-area-afcfta-implementation/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

42. Fofack, H. (2020). Making the AfCFTA work for 'The Africa We Want'. Brookings Institution. Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/20.12.28-AfCFTA_Fofack.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

43. Fofack, H., & Mold, A. (2021). The AfCFTA and African Trade—An Introduction to the Special Issue. Journal of African Trade, 8(2), 1–11. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

44. https://jat.afreximbank.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1008&context=journal [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

45. Freetrade Nigeria. (2024). Nigeria in the AfCFTA: Opportunities and challenges. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

46. https://freetradenigeria.com/nigeria-in-the-afcfta-opportunities-and-challenges/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

47. IISD. (2014). Maximizing the Utilization of ASEAN-Led Free Trade Agreements. International Institute for Sustainable Development. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

48. https://www.iisd.org/system/files/publications/tkn_maximizing_asean.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

49. International Training Centre of the ILO (ITCILO). (n.d.). Timeline and Mechanism of AFTA Implementation. https://training.itcilo.org/actrav_cdrom1/english/global/blokit/afta.htm [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

50. John, M. (2022). Understanding the Complex Interplay of Governance, Systematic, and Structural Factors Affecting Service Delivery in South African Municipalities. Commonwealth Youth and Development, 20(2), 28. https://doi.org/10.25159/1727-7140/12230 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

51. Jus Mundi. (2022). The ASEAN Protocol on Dispute Settlement Mechanisms – An appraisal. https://jusmundi.com/en/document/publication/en-the-asean-protocol-on-dispute-settlement-mechanisms-an-appraisal [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

52. Karunanidhi, R. (2011). Developing Africa: Trade barriers, liberalization and inequality in the World Trade Organisation. African Journal of Business Management, 5(22), 8686–8696. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

53. Ke, W. (2023). Evaluation of dispute resolution mechanism of China-ASEAN Free Trade Area. Pakistan Journal of Law and Social Sciences, 21(1), 2492-2504. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

54. https://www.pjlss.edu.pk/pdf_files/2025_1/2492-2504.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

55. Magu, S. M. (2023). Introduction—Africa’s Regional Economic Communities (RECs). In S. M. Magu (Ed.), Towards Pan-Africanism: Africa’s Cooperation through Regional Economic Communities (RECs), Ubuntu and Communitarianism (pp. 1–17). Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-8944-5_1 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

56. Market Access Map. (2025). African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

57. https://www.macmap.org/en/learn/afcfta [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

58. MDPI. (2023). The Impact of AfCFTA on Welfare and Trade: Nigeria and South Africa. Sustainability, 15(6), 5090. Retrieved from https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/15/6/5090 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

59. Mingjiang, L. (2015). Problems with the ASEAN Free Trade Area dispute settlement mechanism. Journal of World Trade, 49(2), 251-273. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

60. https://kluwerlawonline.com/journalarticle/Journal+of+World+Trade/49.2/TRAD2015012 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

61. Ministry of International Trade and Industry Malaysia (MITI). (2025). ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA). https://fta.miti.gov.my/index.php/pages/view/asean-afta [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

62. Mustapha, A. H., & Adetoye, D. (2020). Nigeria and the African Continental Free Trade Agreement Area (AfCFTA): Issues, challenges and prospects. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 7(2), 1-15. https://journals.scholarpublishing.org/index.php/ASSRJ/article/download/7698/4814/19460 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

63. Nairametrics. (2025, May 26). Nigeria opens AfCFTA air corridor to Kenya, Uganda, South Africa, cutting export costs by up to 75%. https://nairametrics.com/2025/05/26/nigeria-opens-afcfta-air-corridor-to-kenya-uganda-south-africa-cutting-export-costs-by-up-to-75/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

64. National Bureau of Statistics (2024) Foreign Trade Data [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

65. Nigeria AfCFTA Readiness Report. (2019). Africa Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA)—Impact and Readiness Asseement. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

66. https://www.nipc.gov.ng/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/20210125-AfCFTA_Impact-and-Readiness-Assessment-Report_Exec-Summary.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

67. Nigeria's AfCFTA Strategy and Implementation Plan. (2021). PDF Nigeria. Retrieved from https://www.pdfnigeria.org/rc/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/210302AfCFTA-Implementation-Strategy-and-Plan-Final-007-MITI-NAC-JU-vs-0.1.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

68. Oramah, B. (2021). Afreximbank in the Era of the AfCFTA. Journal of African Trade, 8(2), 24–35. https://jat.afreximbank.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1042&context=journal [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

69. Paramita, G. L. et al. (2023). ASEAN's initiatives for free trade in East Asia under AEC. Asia Pacific Journal of Business and Local Economy, 12(4), 45–62. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

70. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/24761028.2021.1902068 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

71. Pomfret, R. (2018, April 10). How should we measure ASEAN’s success? East Asia Forum. https://eastasiaforum.org/2018/04/10/how-should-we-measure-aseans-success/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

72. Qingqing, W., & Lili, S. (2012). Evaluation of the dispute resolution mechanism of CAFTA: Necessity of establishing a permanent dispute resolution body. International Journal of Law and Management, 54(5), 249. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijlma-04-2012-0019 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

73. RSIS International. (2025). AfCFTA and Economic Integration in Africa - Issues in Implementation and Development. https://rsisinternational.org/journals/ijriss/articles/afcfta-and-economic-integration-in-africa-issues-in-implementation-and-development/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

74. South Centre. (2025). Assessing five years of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) (Research Paper No. 215). https://www.southcentre.int/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/RP215_Assessing-Five-Years-of-the-AfCFTA_EN.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

75. South Centre. (2025). Research Paper 215: Assessing five years of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA). https://www.southcentre.int/research-paper-215-23-january-2025/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

76. StocksNG. (2025, July 3). Nigeria to drive development on implementation of African Continental Free Trade Area. https://stocksng.com/nigeria-to-drive-development-on-implementation-of-african-continental-free-trade-area/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

77. Taoufik, N.; Oudghiri, K.; and Jibali, B. (2023) The African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA): Progress and prospects. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

78. https://africanscientificjournal.com/index.php/AfricanScientificJournal/article/download/416/389/426 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

79. The Guardian Nigeria. (2025, June 5). Nigeria, others emerge key drivers of intra-African trade. https://guardian.ng/business-services/industry/nigeria-others-emerge-key-drivers-of-intra-african-trade/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

80. ThisDayLive. (2025, July 3). FG harps on implementing policies to explore $3.4trn opportunities in AfCFTA single market. https://www.thisdaylive.com/2025/07/03/fg-harps-on-implementing-policies-to-explore-3-4trn-opportunities-in-afcfta-single-market/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

81. Trade Law Centre (tralac). (2025). African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) legal texts and policy documents. https://www.tralac.org/resources/by-region/cfta.html [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

82. Tri Handayani, R., & Putri, N. (2021). Approaches to standards cooperation with ASEAN and the relevance of Aid for Trade (AfT). Journal of Asia-Pacific Studies, 28(3), 5-51. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

83. https://research.tue.nl/en/publications/approaches-to-standards-cooperation-with-asean-and-the-relevance- [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

84. UNCTAD. (2021). Regional approaches: ASEAN. In Investor-State Dispute Settlement Reform: Input from UNCTAD. https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/edmmisc232add29_en.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

85. UNECA. (2020). Concept note: Governing the interface between the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) and RECs’ Free Trade Areas (RFTAs): Issues, opportunities and challenges. https://archive.uneca.org/sites/default/files/uploaded-documents/RITD/2020/concept_note_-_interface_between_the_afcfta_and_recs_ftas_issues_opportunities_and_challenges.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

86. UNECA. (2023). The African Continental Free Trade Area and Demand for Transport Infrastructure and Services. https://www.uneca.org/the-african-continental-free-trade-area-and-demand-for-transport-infrastructure-and-services [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

87. UNECA. (2025). ECA must continue to support our countries in facing AfCFTA implementation challenges. https://www.uneca.org/stories/eca-must-continue-to-support-our-countries-in-facing-afcfta-implementation-challenges- [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

88. Willie, S. (2023). Towards the African Economic Community: Legal and Historical Perspectives. Potchefstroom Electronic Law Journal, 26(1). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

89. https://journals.co.za/doi/epdf/10.17159/1727-3781/2023/v26i0a15609 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

90. WJARR. (2024). African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA): The benefits to the Nigerian economy. https://wjarr.com/sites/default/files/WJARR-2024-1881.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

91. Wong, C. K., Liew, V. K.-S., & Arip, M. A. (2020). The impact of ASEAN Free Trade Area on intra-ASEAN manufacturing trade. International Journal of Business and Society, 18(3), 705–728. https://www.ijbs.unimas.my/images/repository/pdf/Vol18-no3-paper16.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

92. World Bank. (2020). The African Continental Free Trade Area: Economic and distributional effects. https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/trade/publication/the-african-continental-free-trade-area [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

93. WorldTradeLaw.net. (n.d.). ASEAN Free Trade Agreements (AFTA). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

94. https://www.worldtradelaw.net/document.php?id=fta%2Fagreements%2Fafta.pdf&mode=download [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

95. WTO. (2013). Driving Private Sector Participation in Global Value Chains. World Trade Organization. https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/devel_e/a4t_e/global_review13prog_e/aftrtg_asian_e.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

96. WTO. (2024). ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) – Regional trade agreements. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

97. https://rtais.wto.org/UI/PublicShowRTAIDCard.aspx?rtaid=1170 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

98. Zawya. (2025, July 3). Nigerian business leverage African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) to grow the country’s intra-African trade. https://www.zawya.com/en/press-release/africa-press-releases/nigerian-business-leverage-african-continental-free-trade-area-afcfta-to-grow-the-countrys-intra-african-trade-irj560ir [Google Scholar] [Crossref]