INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)

ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue IX September 2025

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Navigating the New Digital Landscape: The Role of ICT Accessibility

and Competency in Enhancing Educational Quality in Cambodian

Public Higher Education

*Samean Phon., Dhakir Abbas Ali

School of Business and Management, Lincoln University College, Selangor, Malaysia

* Corresponding Author

DOI: https://doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2025.120800259

Received: 03 Sep 2025; Accepted: 09 Sep 2025; Published: 04 October 2025

ABSTRACT

Cambodia’s expanding digital economy has positioned the modernization of higher education as a pivotal

force in national development. Within this transformation, Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

is indispensable; however, prior research has largely centered on access issues, often termed the “first-level

digital divide.” Addressing this gap, the present study offers empirical evidence from Cambodian public

universities by examining and comparing the roles of ICT accessibility and ICT competency in shaping

students’ perceptions of educational quality. The primary objective was to determine both their individual and

relative contributions.

Employing a quantitative methodology, data were obtained through surveys administered to 306 students from

five public universities. Data analysis using SmartPLS 3.0 and Partial Least Squares Structural Equation

Modeling (PLS-SEM) involved validation of the measurement model and hypothesis testing. Results confirm

that ICT accessibility (β = 0.255, p < 0.001) and ICT competency (β = 0.309, p < 0.001) exert significant

positive effects on perceived educational quality, with competency showing a stronger influence. This finding

highlights the “second-level digital divide,” where disparities in skills outweigh those of access. The structural

model demonstrated an explanatory power of 15.3% for the variance in educational quality.

The study contributes theoretically by substantiating the second-level digital divide and practically by

providing evidence-based guidance for higher education development in Cambodia. Specifically, it

underscores the necessity of a dual-focus strategy: continued investment in digital infrastructure alongside

systematic initiatives to strengthen digital competencies. Such an integrated approach is vital to advancing

educational quality and, ultimately, supporting Cambodia’s broader socio-economic development agenda.

Keywords: ICT Accessibility, ICT Competency, Quality Education, Digital Divide, Cambodian Higher

Education,

INTRODUCTION

Cambodia’s higher education sector stands at a pivotal moment in its development. As the country continues to

experience rapid economic growth and social transformation, public universities are under increasing pressure

to produce graduates who can thrive in a competitive, technology-driven regional and global economy. The

Royal Government of Cambodia and the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport (MoEYS) have explicitly

highlighted the importance of digital skills and infrastructure in national strategic documents such as the “

Cambodia Digital Economy and Society Policy Framework 2021-2035” and the “Education Strategic Plan

2024-2028”(MoEYS, 2024). These policies recognize that Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

is no longer a luxury but a fundamental pillar for educational modernization, research innovation, and

administrative efficiency.

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However, the integration of ICT into Cambodia's public higher education system is a complex challenge

characterized by a significant and multifaceted digital divide. This divide is not merely about the availability of

computers or internet connectivity—though these remain considerable hurdles—but extends to a deeper chasm

in the ability to effectively harness technology for teaching, learning, and research. While some urban

institutions may have relatively better infrastructure, the system as a whole grapples with inconsistent ICT

accessibility, encompassing unreliable internet bandwidth, a shortage of modern computing facilities, limited

access to digital academic journals and software, and a lack of assistive technologies for students with

disabilities. This uneven access creates a stark disparity between urban and rural institutions and threatens to

exacerbate existing educational inequalities.

Furthermore, even where infrastructure exists, its potential impact on the quality of education is often

unrealized due to a second critical gap: ICT competency. This challenge manifests at multiple levels. Many

academic staff, experts in their fields, have not been sufficiently trained in digital pedagogy—the art of using

technology to create engaging, interactive, and effective learning experiences. Similarly, students often enter

university with varying levels of digital literacy, frequently limited to basic social media use rather than the

critical information literacy, online collaboration, and technical skills required for academic success and future

employment. Administrative staff may also lack the skills to implement digital management systems that

streamline university operations.

This research posits that ICT accessibility (the opportunity) and ICT competency (the skill) are not

independent factors but are deeply interconnected and mutually reinforcing. The provision of advanced

technology without comprehensive training leads to underutilized and wasted resources. Conversely, training

initiatives are futile without the reliable technological foundation upon which to build skills. It is the combined

effect of these two variables that is hypothesized to be a crucial driver in enhancing the overall quality of

Cambodian public higher education.

Therefore, this study seeks to investigate the following question: To what extent does the interaction between

ICT accessibility and ICT competency predict perceived and actual quality of education in Cambodian public

universities?

By examining this relationship, this research aims to provide university leaders, policymakers, and

international development partners with an evidence-based model for strategic investment. The ultimate goal is

to offer clear insights into how Cambodia can build a more robust, equitable, and high-quality higher education

system that effectively prepares its graduates to become innovators and leaders in the ASEAN digital

economy.

LITERATURE REVIEW

The integration of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) into education has been a subject of

extensive global research, recognized as a transformative force with the potential to significantly enhance the

quality of teaching and learning. This review synthesizes literature exploring the triad of ICT accessibility (the

provision of infrastructure and tools), ICT competency (the skills to use them effectively), and their collective

impact on educational quality. The consensus across studies is that while accessibility is a fundamental

prerequisite, it is the development of human competency that unlocks technology's true potential to improve

educational outcomes(Bong & Chen, 2024).

Access to technology is the non-negotiable first step in the integration process. Bindu CN (2016), in a broad

literature review, establishes that ICT provides powerful tools for transforming education from a traditional,

teacher-centric model to a dynamic, learner-centric one. This transformation is contingent on the availability of

resources like computers, reliable internet, and digital learning materials. The literature positions accessibility

as the gateway that enables innovative pedagogical methods, including interactive simulations, virtual

laboratories, and access to a global repository of information, thereby expanding the boundaries of the

classroom (Bindu CN, 2016; Saravanakumar, 2018).

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However, a critical theme emerging from the research is that mere availability does not guarantee

effectiveness. Tokareva et al., (2021) identify infrastructure and readiness as key predictors for the successful

implementation of ICT in higher education, highlighting that a lack of access remains a primary barrier in

many contexts, effectively creating a digital divide between institutions.

The literature overwhelmingly identifies ICT competency—encompassing digital, technological, and internet

literacy—as the critical catalyst that transforms access into quality. Several studies break down this

competency across different educational actors:

Student Competency: Yeşilyurt & Vezne, (2023) demonstrate that students' digital, technological, and internet

literacies are significant positive predictors of their attitude toward computer-supported education. Favorable

attitudes are directly linked to higher engagement and, consequently, better learning outcomes.

Lecturer Competency: The role of educator proficiency is perhaps the most emphasized. Dang et al., (2024)

provide empirical evidence from higher education, finding that the digital competence of lecturers has a direct

and positive impact on perceived student learning value. Competent lecturers can design more engaging,

interactive, and effective learning experiences, thereby directly elevating educational quality. Similarly,

Gorghiu et al., (2018) argue that enriching the ICT competences of university students, particularly those

training to be teachers, is a "key factor for their success." This underscores the importance of embedding these

skills in professional development to create a multiplier effect in the education system.

Administrative Competency: D Amutha, (2020) expands the scope, noting that ICT competency also improves

the quality of education through efficient administrative management, enabling better data handling,

communication, and institutional planning.

The combined effect of access and competency manifests in multiple dimensions of educational quality, as

outlined in the literature:

Enhanced Teaching and Learning Processes: ICT facilitates more interactive, collaborative, and personalized

learning environments (Bindu CN, 2016; Saravanakumar, 2018). D Amutha, (2020) concludes that ICT acts as

a "powerful catalyst for change," making education more accessible, engaging, and effective.

Development of 21st-Century Skills: Beyond academic knowledge, the effective use of ICT fosters critical

thinking, creativity, collaboration, and information literacy—skills essential for success in the modern world

(Gorghiu et al., 2018; Yeşilyurt & Vezne, 2023).

Increased Equity and Inclusion: When implemented correctly, ICT can help bridge educational gaps by

providing diverse learners with tools and resources tailored to their individual needs (Amutha, 2020).

The synthesized literature presents a clear narrative: ICT accessibility and ICT competency are interdependent

variables that collectively determine the quality of education. Infrastructure provides the opportunity, but

human capital determines the outcome. A deficiency in either component leads to suboptimal results;

technology without skill is wasted, and skill without technology is frustrated(Zou et al., 2024).

While the existing research robustly establishes this relationship in general terms, a clear gap exists

for context-specific studies, particularly in developing economies like Cambodia. Research focused on the

Cambodian public higher education sector is needed to understand the unique challenges and predictors of

success within its specific infrastructural, cultural, and economic landscape. Future studies should

quantitatively measure the interaction between these variables to provide policymakers with a definitive model

for strategic investment in both technology and human capacity building

Hypotheses and Theoretical Framework

H1: Has a positive effect relationship between ICT accessibility and the perceived quality of education in

Cambodian public universities.

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H2: Has a positive effect relationship between ICT competency and the perceived quality of education in

Cambodian public universities.

Figure 1: Theoretical Framework

METHODOLOGY

The research design can be defined as the framework that is appropriate for any given research, depending on

its nature or the challenges it addresses. Quantitative research is a scientific strategy that involves experiments

or systematic approaches to identify control samples and evaluate individual activities (Hoy & Adams, 2015).

Additionally, , Lawrence Neuman, (2014) defines a population as a broad group of individuals or cases from

which a sample is selected for the purpose of generalizing. In line with this, the current study focuses on

students from specific public universities in Cambodia. These public universities were chosen for this study for

several key reasons. Furthermore, as highlighted by Additionally, Krejcie & DW Morgan, (1970) stated that

the growing demand for research has driven efforts to develop a realistic approach for calculating the sample

size required to accurately reflect the population under study.

Meanwhile, the questionnaire was meticulously developed using validated items corresponding to the study's

key constructs. A pilot study was carried out to evaluate the instrument's internal consistency and reliability.

The results revealed that Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the majority of the constructs ranged from 0.725 to

0.886, thereby exceeding the commonly accepted threshold of 0.70 (JC Nunnally, 1978). Following the pilot

validation, hard copies of the finalized questionnaires were distributed to students at selected 5 public

universities in Cambodia to ensure efficient and effective data collection. In total, 346 hard-copy

questionnaires were distributed to students across selected public higher education institutions in Cambodia.

This effort yielded 312 returned surveys, representing a response rate of approximately 90.1%. Upon screening

the responses, 40 questionnaires were excluded due to substantial incomplete data. Consequently, 306 fully

completed and valid questionnaires were retained for subsequent analysis. Thus, the overall response rate was

88.4%, which is considered acceptable for quantitative analysis.

The primary constructs in the study were assessed using a five-point Likert scale, with response options

ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) (R Likert, 1932). The questionnaire was divided into

four sections. Items addressing Digital literacy were designed to reflect the technological context, drawing on

established frameworks. ICT competency measures were adapted from previously validated scales, while

quality education was assessed using multiple dimensions based on prior educational research.

SmartPLS software was utilized in the present study to evaluate the proposed research framework, as it is a

widely adopted tool for quantitative data analysis. Specifically, SmartPLS facilitated the assessment of the

structural model, enabling the examination of the model’s predictive capacity and the relationships among the

constructs (Hair et al., 2017). In this study, SmartPLS 3.0 was employed to estimate both the measurement

model (external model), which involved evaluating constructs’ consistency and strength, and the structural

model (internal model), which assessed the hypothesized relationships between latent variables.

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Table 1: The demographic characteristics of the respondents

Factors

Classification

Repetition

Proportion

Gender

Male

201

65.7

Female

105

34.3

Age

Below 20yrs

21.2

21-23yrs

194

63.4

24-26yrs

13.7

Above 26yrs

1.6

Institutions

Institute of Technology Cambodia

106

34.6

Royal University of Phnom Penh

16.3

Royal University of Agriculture

29.7

National University of Battam Bang

14.4

University of Heng Samrin Thboung Khmum

4.9

306

RESULT

Measurement Model Evaluation

Table 2, the reliability, and validity of the constructs were confirmed using Cronbach’s alpha, composite

reliability (CR), AVE, and discriminant validity, following (Hair et al., 2017). All constructs demonstrated

strong internal consistency (α and CR > 0.962) and convergent validity (AVE > 0.639). Items with loadings

between 0.70 and 0.90 were kept in the model.

Table 2: Construct Reliability and Validity

Construct

Items

Loadings

Cronbach Alpha

Composite Reliability

Average Variance

Extracted

ICT Accessibility

ITA1

0.827

0.919

0.934

0.639

ITA2

0.797

ITA3

0.799

ITA4

0.825

ITA5

0.886

ITA6

0.771

ITA7

0.756

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ITA8

0.725

ICT Competency

ITC1

0.870

0.930

0.943

0.704

ITC2

0.840

ITC3

0.878

ITC4

0.846

ITC5

0.784

ITC6

0.832

ITC7

0.820

Quality Education

QE1

0.836

0.956

0.962

0.716

QE10

0.823

QE2

0.862

QE3

0.883

QE4

0.871

QE5

0.850

QE6

0.866

QE7

0.789

QE8

0.865

QE9

0.812

Table 3 confirms the constructs are distinct. Following the Fornell & Larcker, (1981), the square root of each

construct's AVE (ICT Accessibility: 0.799, ICT Competency: 0.839, Quality Education: 0.846) was higher

than its correlations with other constructs. This establishes discriminant validity and confirms the strength of

the measurement model.

Table 3: Latent Variable Correlations (Fornel-Larcker Criterion)

Constructs

ITA

ITC

ICT Accessibility

0.799

ICT Competency

-0.004

0.839

Quality Education

0.246

0.303

0.846

Table 4, discriminant validity was further supported using the Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT), with all

values below the 0.90 threshold (Henseler et al., 2016). Specifically, the values for ITA–ITC (0.068), ITA–QE

(0.259), and ITC–QE (0.303) demonstrate a clear separation between the constructs, thereby confirming robust

discriminant validity within the measurement model.

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Table 4: Discriminant Validity (Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio - HTMT)

Constructs

ITA

ITC

ICT Accessibility

ICT Competency

0.068

Quality Education

0.259

0.303

Structural Model Evaluation

After confirming the validity of the measurement model, the R² values were examined to determine how well

the exogenous variables explain the endogenous constructs. Higher R² values reflect greater explanatory

power. As outlined by Chin, (1998), R² values greater than 0.67 signify strong explanatory power, values

ranging from 0.33 to 0.67 indicate a moderate level, values between 0.19 and 0.33 are viewed as weak, and

those below 0.19 are considered inadequate. As presented in Table 5, an R² of 0.153 indicates that 15.3% of

the variability in Quality Education can be explained by the predictors included in the regression model. This

suggests a weak effect size, depending on the context and field (e.g., in social sciences, this might be

considered acceptable; in physics or engineering, it would be low). The minimal decrease from R² to adjusted

R² indicates that the model's predictors possess genuine explanatory value without overfitting. Nonetheless, the

low magnitude of the adjusted R² (0.148) signifies that the model explains only a modest portion of the

variance, implying that significant unexplained factors influencing Quality Education remain absent from the

model.

Table 5: Coefficient of Determination (R Square)

Constructs

R-square

R-square adjusted

Quality Education

0.153

0.148

Additionally Cohen, (1988), f² effect sizes were assessed to determine the extent to which each exogenous

variable influences the R² values of the endogenous constructs Cohen, (1988). As a standard benchmark, effect

sizes (f²) are typically categorized as small (0.02), medium (0.15), or large (0.35). Table 6 reveals that ICT

Accessibility has a small effect size of 0.072 on quality education, indicating a meaningful and statistically

relevant influence. This suggests that as ICT Accessibility among students or educators increases, the

perceived or actual quality of education improves in a measurable way. Such a finding highlights the

importance of digital competence not just as a technical skill, but as a foundational component of modern

educational environments that enhances teaching and learning. In contrast, ICT competency shows a smaller

effect size of 0.109, reflecting a comparatively limited influence on quality education. While still statistically

relevant, its weaker effect implies that technical proficiency with ICT tools alone may not strongly drive

educational quality unless integrated meaningfully into pedagogical practice. These results suggest that while

both digital literacy and ICT competency are important, emphasis should be placed more heavily on

developing digital literacy in order to achieve greater educational impact.

Table 6: Effect Sizes (f

) Analysis

Quality Education

Effect Size

Decisions

ICT Accessibility

0.072

Small

ICT Competency

0.109

Small

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Furthermore, Q² values were derived using the blindfolding procedure to evaluate the model’s predictive

relevance; values greater than zero suggest that the model has sufficient predictive accuracy (Henseler &

Sarstedt, 2013).. The construct Quality Education shows an SSE (sum of squared errors) of 3060.000 and an

SSO (sum of squares total) of 2445.800, yielding a 1–SSE/SSO value of 0.103. This value represents the

explained variance in Quality Education by the model, equivalent to an R² of 0.103, or 10.3% in Table 7.

Table 7: Construct Cross Validated Redundancy (Q2)

Constructs

SSE

SSO

1-SSE/SSO

Quality Education

3060.000

2745.800

0.103

Note: SSO - Systematic Sources of Output; SSE - Systematic Sources of Error

Therefore, the SRMR values for both the saturated and estimated models are 0.065, which falls below the

recommended threshold of 0.10. This indicates that the model applied in this study demonstrates a good fit

(Henseler & Sarstedt, 2013; Hu et al., 1999). A summary of the structural model indicators is presented in

Table 8.

Table 8: Goodness of Fit of The Model

Item

Saturated Model

Estimated Model

SRMR

0.065

d_ULS

1.371

d_G

0.896

Chi-Square

1488.499

NFI

0.788

Hypothesis Testing

Figure 2: Path Model Significant

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Table 9 shows, the results indicate that ICT accessibility has a significant and positive effect on the perceived

quality of education (β = 0.255, p < 0.001), demonstrating that the availability of digital infrastructure is a

foundational determinant of educational quality. This finding is consistent with previous studies that

emphasize the critical role of access to ICT resources—such as computers, stable internet, software, and digital

learning materials—in facilitating effective teaching and learning (Bindu CN, 2016; D Amutha, 2020;

Yeşilyurt & Vezne, 2023). The path coefficient suggests that improvements in students’ perceived access to

ICT resources are associated with meaningful increases in their evaluation of educational quality, highlighting

the importance of first-level digital inclusion. Without adequate access, efforts to integrate technology into

learning environments are severely constrained, as infrastructure forms the baseline upon which effective ICT

utilization depends. Practically, these findings underscore the need for higher education institutions and

policymakers in Cambodia to ensure equitable and reliable access to ICT resources, providing the essential

conditions for both teaching innovation and student engagement. Moreover, by addressing accessibility gaps,

universities can lay the groundwork for further initiatives aimed at enhancing digital competencies and

maximizing the impact of ICT on learning outcomes..

The analysis demonstrates that ICT competency exerts a significant and positive influence on the perceived

quality of education (β = 0.309, p < 0.001), indicating that students’ ability to effectively use digital tools is a

critical determinant of educational outcomes. This finding aligns with prior research emphasizing that while

access to technology is essential, the skills and competencies to leverage ICT are even more influential in

enhancing learning experiences (D Amutha, 2020; Saravanakumar, 2018; Tokareva et al., 2021). The relatively

higher path coefficient compared to ICT accessibility suggests that the “second-level digital divide”—

differences in digital skills—has a stronger impact on educational quality than access alone. Practically, this

underscores the necessity for higher education institutions to implement structured digital literacy programs,

training initiatives, and pedagogical strategies that build both technical and cognitive ICT competencies among

students. By prioritizing skill development alongside infrastructure investment, universities can ensure that

technology is not only available but also meaningfully utilized to improve learning outcomes and overall

educational quality. These findings contribute to the theoretical understanding of the second-level digital

divide, highlighting that competency-driven interventions are crucial for realizing the transformative potential

of ICT in higher education.

Table 9: Direct Effect Hypotheses Testing

Hypothesis

Coef.

T value

P values

Decision

ICT Accessibility -> Quality Education

0.255

0.053

4.670

0.000

Supported

ICT Competency -> Quality Education

0.309

0.047

6.461

0.000

Supported

Note: Coef. = Coefficient; se = standard error.

CONCLUSION

This study examined the relationship between ICT accessibility, ICT competency, and the perceived quality of

education in Cambodian public universities. The findings confirm that both factors significantly and positively

influence educational quality, highlighting the need for simultaneous investment in infrastructure (internet,

hardware, software) and human capacity (digital literacy training for students and pedagogical development for

lecturers). Importantly, ICT competency (β = 0.309) was found to have a stronger effect than ICT accessibility

(β = 0.255), underscoring that skills, rather than access alone, are the greater determinant of educational

quality.

Although the model’s explanatory power (R² = 0.153) may appear modest, it is meaningful in the complex

context of educational research, where numerous variables shape quality outcomes. The result demonstrates

that ICT factors alone explain a notable share of the variance, reinforcing their role as a critical lever for

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improving higher education. The study’s validity is further strengthened by rigorous measurement, which

confirmed the reliability and distinctiveness of the constructs used.

To translate these findings into practice, a coordinated multi-stakeholder strategy is essential. Universities

should embed digital literacy into curricula and support faculty in developing Technological Pedagogical

Content Knowledge (TPACK), while national policymakers must align infrastructure investment with

capacity-building programs under frameworks such as the Cambodia Digital Economy and Society Policy.

Future research should explore additional drivers of educational quality and identify the most effective training

and access models to maximize the impact of ICT on higher education outcomes.

This study is limited by its focus on a few Cambodian universities, which may reduce generalizability. The

cross-sectional design also restricts causal inferences. Future research should use longitudinal designs, include

more diverse samples, and investigate additional factors like institutional support or teaching methods to better

understand how ICT accessibility and ICT competency affect education quality.

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