INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue IX September 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 3061
Ethnocentrism and Negative Stereotyping: An Analysis of Caste
Dynamics among Rural and Urban Students in Bihar
Dr Kumari Manoj Singh
Assistant Professor Department of Phycology
S.B College, Ara, Bihar, India
DOI: https://doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2025.120800275
Received: 23 Sep 2025; Accepted: 29 Sep 2025; Published: 04 October 2025
ABSTRACT
This paper analyses the dynamics of in-group favouritism (ethnocentrism) and out-group hostility (negative
stereotyping) among school-going adolescents in Bihar, a state with a long history of caste-based conflict (Das,
2018; Heinz, n.d.; Kumar & Singh, n.d.). Drawing on data from a study of 1,400 students, the analysis reveals
a dual psychological tendency: a "very high degree of ethnocentric perception," where students rate their own
caste favourably, coexisting with "quite obvious" negative stereotyping of other caste groups (Kumar & Singh,
n.d.). A central focus of this paper is the significant difference in these attitudes based on geographic location.
The findings indicate that students from rural areas exhibit substantially higher levels of negative stereotyping,
prejudice, and religiosity compared to their urban counterparts (Kumar & Singh, n.d.). This rural-urban divide
suggests that while caste identity remains a powerful force for all students, the social environment of rural
Bihar acts as a potent incubator for traditional prejudices and inter-group animosity, challenging the notion that
casteism is uniformly declining with modernization.
Keywords: Ethnocentrism, Hostility, Adolescents, Negative stereotyping, psychological tendency, Caste,
Geographic location, Rural areas, urban.
INTRODUCTION
Casteism in the Indian state of Bihar is not a historical artifact but a living social practice that continues to
fragment society and fuel inter-group conflict (Jaspal, 2011; Kumar & Singh, n.d.; Sahay, 1998). The state's
history is marked by violent struggles over land, dignity, and political power, often drawn along rigid caste
lines (Das, 2018; Heinz, n.d.; Verma, 2019). These deep-seated conflicts have created a social landscape where
perceptions between groups are frequently shaped by entrenched negative stereotypes and prejudices, which
can, in turn, lead to violence and social discord (Bettelheim & Janowitz, 1964; Kumar & Singh, n.d.). It is
against this backdrop of persistent tension that this study was conducted to understand how these dynamics are
being reproduced, challenged, or transformed among the younger generation.
Adolescence represents a critical period for the formation of social attitudes. The views developed during these
years are often carried into adulthood and can shape the future trajectory of societal relations. Therefore,
understanding the attitudes of today's youth is crucial for gauging the persistence of caste-based prejudice. The
primary goal of this research was to conduct a systematic examination of the caste stereotypes held by students
from seven of the region's major caste groups (Brahmins, Rajput, Bhumihar, Kayastha, Yadav, Baniya, and
Harijan) as they perceive each other (Kumar & Singh, n.d.). A specific objective was to analyze the complex
tension between in-group favoritism—the natural tendency to view one's own group more positively—and the
corresponding hostility directed toward out-groups.
Furthermore, prior literature has presented inconsistent findings regarding the impact of modernization on
caste attitudes (Kumar & Singh, n.d.; Sahay, 1998). While some theories suggest that urbanization and
education should lead to a decline in traditional prejudices, other evidence indicates that caste identities can
adapt and even strengthen in modern contexts. To address this ambiguity, this study sought to conduct a fresh
examination of the differences in stereotypes, prejudice, and religiosity between students in rural and urban
settings. By analyzing the interplay of socio-economic status, gender, and geography, the research aims to
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue IX September 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 3062
provide a nuanced understanding of the factors shaping inter-caste relations among Bihar's adolescents.
Methodology
The analysis is based on data collected from 1,400 school students in classes IX and X from the districts of
Patna, Gaya, Nalanda, and Bhojpur—a region historically known for caste-based violence (Kumar & Singh,
n.d.). The sample was evenly balanced between male and female students (700 each) and included participants
from both rural and urban areas (Kumar & Singh, n.d.). Caste stereotypes were measured using Singh's Indian
Caste Stereotype Checklist, a 100-item adjective list that generates composite positive and negative scores for
how each caste rates others and itself (Kumar & Singh, n.d.).
Table 1: Summary of Research Methodology
Category Description
Sample Size 1,400 school students
Participant Grade
Level
Classes IX and X
Geographic
Location
Districts of Patna, Gaya, Nalanda, and Bhojpur, Bihar
Sample Composition - Gender: 700 male and 700 female students- Location: Evenly split between rural
and urban areas
Measurement
Instrument
Singh's Indian Caste Stereotype Checklist
Data Generated Composite positive and negative stereotype scores for seven major caste groups,
measuring both in-group and out-group perceptions.
Findings on Ethnocentrism (In-Group Perception)
A primary finding of the study was the powerful role of caste as a source of positive identity. Across all seven
caste groups, the research identified a "very high degree of ethnocentire perception" (Kumar & Singh, n.d.).
This was empirically demonstrated by the "high degree of positive perception for own caste group" (Kumar &
Singh, n.d.).
Ethnocentrism, in this context, is the tendency to view one's own group as superior and as the standard for
judging others (Ackerman & Jahoda, 1950; Bayton & Byoune, 1947). This phenomenon is well-explained by
Social Identity Theory, which posits that individuals derive self-esteem from their group memberships
(Adorno et al., 1950; Tajfel & Turner, 1979). To maintain a positive self-concept, individuals are motivated to
see their own group (the in-group) in a more favorable light than other groups (out-groups). The study found
that this ethnocentric tendency was positively correlated with other factors, including higher socio-economic
status, religiosity, and a general prejudice orientation, suggesting that in-group pride is reinforced by economic
standing and traditional belief systems (Kumar & Singh, n.d.).
Findings on Negative Stereotyping (Out-Group Perception)
Complementing the strong in-group pride was a pervasive pattern of out-group hostility. The study found that
the presence of negative stereotypes was "quite obvious with each caste group for others" (Kumar & Singh,
n.d.). This illustrates the other side of the social identity dynamic: the same process that enhances the in-group
often leads to the derogation of out-groups, which is a cornerstone of prejudice (Bettelheim & Janowitz, 1964;
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue IX September 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 3063
Yadav & Singha, 2025).
The stereotypes were not abstract; they appeared to reflect the region's history of conflict. For instance, the
Bhumihar caste was identified as the "most negatively rated" by a majority of other groups, while the Kayastha
caste received a "moderate rating" (Kumar & Singh, n.d.). This perception aligns with the historical role of
Bhumihars as a dominant, land-owning caste in central Bihar, who were often central figures in violent
agrarian conflicts with lower-caste laborers and peasant groups (Das, 2018; Heinz, n.d.; Verma, 2019). The
negative stereotypes can thus be seen as a psychological residue of these material and political struggles. The
study confirmed a direct link between prejudice and stereotyping, noting that a "more general prejudice
orientation... result[s] into more negative stereotyping" of members of other castes (Kumar & Singh, n.d.).
The Rural-Urban Divide in Caste Dynamics
The most striking findings of the study emerged from the comparison between rural and urban students,
revealing a deep chasm in social attitudes. The research found "significant differences on all the factors of the
study" (Kumar & Singh, n.d.).
Stereotypes and Prejudice: Rural students were found to be "high on negative stereotyping of other
caste groups" and demonstrated a "greater degree of prejudice orientation." In stark contrast, urban
students were more inclined to "rate other caste rather more positively" (Kumar & Singh, n.d.).
Religiosity: A similar divide was observed for religiosity, with rural students found to be more religious
than their urban counterparts (Kumar & Singh, n.d.).
This rural-urban divide is a powerful indicator of the social forces that either sustain or erode traditional
prejudices. Urban environments in India are typically characterized by greater diversity, which necessitates
more frequent inter-caste contact in schools and public life. This exposure, combined with access to modern
education and media, can challenge inherited stereotypes and foster more liberal attitudes (Jaspal, 2011; Pew
Research Center, 2021). Rural areas, however, often maintain more homogenous and rigid social structures
where caste identity remains highly salient in daily economic and social interactions, thereby preserving and
reinforcing historical prejudices (Sahay, 1998).
The diagram below provides a conceptual model of the factors contributing to this divide.
Figure 1: Conceptual Model of the Rural-Urban Divide in Caste Attitudes This model illustrates the different
social factors in rural and urban environments and their resulting impact on inter-caste perceptions as found in
the study.
CONCLUSION
This analysis reveals the dual nature of caste identity among adolescents in Bihar: it serves as a powerful
source of in-group pride (ethnocentrism) while simultaneously fueling hostility towards other groups (negative
stereotyping). These attitudes are not uniform but are profoundly shaped by the social context in which young
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue IX September 2025
www.rsisinternational.org
Page 3064
people live. The stark divide between rural and urban students demonstrates that the social environment of
rural Bihar, with its more rigid social structures and higher levels of religiosity and prejudice, acts as a
powerful force in the reproduction of traditional caste animosities.
The findings challenge any simple narrative that modernization is automatically leading to the decline of
casteism. While urban environments may foster more tolerant attitudes, the persistence of strong ethnocentrism
and negative stereotyping, particularly in rural areas, indicates that the psychological foundations of caste
conflict are being actively transmitted to the next generation. This underscores the need for targeted
interventions, especially within the rural educational system, that go beyond academics to actively promote
critical thinking and positive inter-group contact to dismantle the deep-seated prejudices that continue to divide
society.
REFERENCES
1. Ackerman, N. W., & Jahoda, M. (1950). Anti-semitism and emotional disorder. Harper & Bros.
2. Adorno, T. W., Frenkel-Brunswik, E., Levinson, D. J., & Sanford, R. N. (1950). The authoritarian
personality. Harper.
3. Bayton, J. A., & Byoune, E. (1947). Racio-national stereotype held by Negroes. Journal of Negro
Education, 16, 49–56.
4. Bettelheim, B., & Janowitz, M. (1964). Social change and prejudice including dyanics of prejudice.
Free Press.
5. Das, B. (2018). Class and caste dynamics of rural violence in Bihar, India: An analysis. International
Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews, 5(3).
6. Dumont, L. (1980). Homo hierarchicus: The caste system and its implications. University of Chicago
Press.
7. Education for All in India. (2023, November). Bihar Caste Census: A comprehensive analysis & its
political implications. https://educationforallinindia.com/bihar-caste-census-a-comprehensive-analysis-
its-political-implications-november-2023/
8. Goldse, K., Rosenberge, M., Williams, R. M., & Suchman, E. A. (1960). What college students think.
Van Nostrand.
9. Heinz, C. B. (n.d.). Bihar: Caste, class, and violence. ResearchGate.
10. Human Rights Watch. (1999). Broken people: Caste violence against India's "untouchables".
https://www.hrw.org/report/1999/03/01/broken-people
11. Jaspal, R. (2011). Caste, social stigma and identity processes. Psychology and Developing Societies,
23(1), 27–62.
12. Kumar, A. (2015). The rise of lower castes in Bihar: A case for historical... History and Sociology of
South Asia, 9(1), 1-21.
13. Kumar, M., & Singh, [No Initial]. (n.d.). A study of caste and communal stereotypes. [Unpublished
manuscript]. Veer Kunwar Singh University, Ara.
14. Pew Research Center. (2021, June 29). Attitudes about caste.
https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2021/06/29/attitudes-about-caste/
15. Sahay, G. R. (1998). Caste system in contemporary rural Bihar: A study of selected villages.
Sociological Bulletin, 47(2), 207-217.
16. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S.
Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–47). Brooks/Cole.
17. UNICEF. (n.d.). Gender equality. UNICEF India. Retrieved July 23, 2025, from
https://www.unicef.org/india/what-we-do/gender-equality
18. Verma, A. K. (2019). Exploring the changing forms of caste-violence: A study of Bhumihars in Bihar,
India. Ethnography and Practice in Contemporary Studies, 6(4), 421-441.
19. Yadav, A., & Singha, D. (2025). Caste Prejudices in Denial: Analyzing Student Perceptions in an
Indian University. CASTE A Global Journal on Social Exclusion, 6(1), 147–166.