INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue X October 2025
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The Virtuous Cycle: Assessing the Interconnection between Women's
Empowerment and Personal Hygiene Practices among Kudumbasree
Members in Alappuzha District
Dr. Latha. P., Dr. Rincy. V. Mathew
Institute of Human Resource Development, India
DOI: https://doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2025.1210000101
Received: 02 October 2025; Accepted: 10 October 2025; Published: 05 November 2025
ABSTRACT
This paper explores the critical and bidirectional interconnection between women's empowerment and personal
hygiene, primarily focusing on the foundational role of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) access.
Inadequate hygiene facilities, particularly during menstruation, result in significant barriers to female
participation by impacting health, education, and economic well-being. Lack of access to private sanitation,
clean water, and menstrual hygiene resources can lead to serious reproductive tract infections, lower self-esteem,
increased school absenteeism for girls, and reduced economic productivity for women. Conversely, greater
women's empowerment evidenced by increased decision-making power, financial autonomy, and access to
education directly correlates with the adoption of hygienic practices. The study highlights that improving WASH
infrastructure and promoting open dialogue around menstrual health are not merely public health issues but
essential strategies for advancing gender equality and fulfilling women's full potential in public and private
spheres. Therefore, sustainable development initiatives must integrate personal hygiene interventions as a core
component of empowerment programs.
Key words: Women's Empowerment, Personal Hygiene, WASH, Gender Equality, Menstrual Health/Hygiene (MHH),
Health Outcomes, Self-Esteem, Decision making
INTRODUCTION
Empowerment enhances human capabilities, promotes gender equality, reduces poverty, and fosters inclusive
growth. When individuals are empowered through education, access to resources, and participation in decision-
making, societies become more equitable and resilient. Thus, there is a global consensus that empowerment is
not merely a social ideal but a strategic necessity for achieving holistic and sustainable human development.
Autonomy and decision-making power are closely linked to the maintenance of personal hygiene, especially
among women and marginalized groups. Autonomy refers to the ability of individuals to make choices and act
independently, while decision-making power denotes control over actions and resources that affect one’s well-
being.
When individuals—particularly women—have greater autonomy and decision-making power, they are better
able to prioritize and practice healthy behaviors. This includes making informed decisions about sanitation,
access to clean water, menstrual hygiene, and the purchase of hygiene products. Conversely, limited autonomy
or dependence on others can restrict access to these essential resources and reduce personal control over hygiene
practices.
Kudumbashree, meaning “prosperity of the family,” is a pioneering women-oriented community development
program launched by the Government of Kerala in 1998. It was initiated jointly by the State Poverty Eradication
Mission (SPEM) and the Local Self-Government Department (LSGD), with support from the Government of
India and the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD). The roots of Kudumbashree
lie in earlier poverty alleviation efforts in Kerala, such as the Urban Basic Services Programme (UBSP) and the
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
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Community-Based Nutrition Programme (CBNP), which demonstrated the effectiveness of women’s collective
participation in development.
Kudumbashree has emerged as one of the largest and most successful women empowerment and poverty
eradication missions in India. Organized as a three-tier structure—Neighborhood Groups (NHGs), Area
Development Societies (ADS), and Community Development Societies (CDS)—it provides women a platform
for collective action, microfinance, entrepreneurship, and social development.
Alappuzha district holds a strong and vibrant base for Kudumbashree activities, reflecting the district’s long-
standing traditions of community participation, literacy, and social reform. Being one of the earliest districts to
implement the Kudumbashree Mission, Alappuzha has demonstrated remarkable success in mobilizing women
and strengthening self-help networks at the grassroots level.
Alappuzha has a diverse and vibrant socio-economic profile. The district boasts a high literacy rate, strong social
development indicators, and a history of cooperative and community-based movements. Traditionally, the
economy has depended on agriculture (especially paddy and coconut cultivation), coir and marine industries,
and fishing. In recent decades, tourism, small-scale industries, and service sectors have gained prominence.
In essence, Alappuzha represents a unique mix of natural beauty, agricultural heritage, and human development,
making it both a cultural and economic asset of Kerala.
Problem Statement:
Despite significant progress in women’s empowerment and health awareness, the link between women’s
empowerment and personal hygiene remains underexplored and unevenly addressed, particularly in rural and
low-income communities. Personal hygiene is a vital component of women’s health, dignity, and overall well-
being; however, it is often influenced by factors such as autonomy, education, decision-making power, and
access to resources—all core dimensions of empowerment.
The central problem lies in understanding how levels of women’s empowerment—measured through education,
autonomy, and participation in decision-making—affect their personal hygiene practices. Identifying this
relationship is crucial for designing effective gender-sensitive health interventions and policies that promote
both empowerment and improved hygiene standards, thereby enhancing women’s quality of life and community
well-being.
Research Objectives:
1. To measure the level of socio-economic and political empowerment among Kudumbasree members in
the Alappuzha district.
2. To assess the adoption and consistency of modern personal and household hygiene practices among the
members.
3. To examine the correlation between the different dimensions of women's empowerment (e.g., decision-
making power, financial independence) and the observed hygiene practices.
4. To identify the Kudumbasree initiatives (e.g., health volunteers, micro-enterprises in soap-
making/sanitary pads) that most effectively mediate this positive relationship.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Kayser, G. L., Rao, N., Jose, R., & Raj, A. (2019) offers a framework showing how empowerment domains such
as decision-making, mobility, control over resources map onto WASH outcomes and measurement needs.
Dickin, S., Bisung, E., & Manning, L. (2021)demonstrates feasibility of capturing multi-domain empowerment
such as household decisions, leadership, time use and links to WASH service use. Singh, A., et al. (2022)found
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thate ducation and household decision-making were strong predictors of hygienic menstrual material use and
safe disposal practices. Behera, M. R., et al. (2022)studied cross-sectional assessment of women’s perceptions
of household sanitation and menstrual hygiene under Swachh Bharat contexts and pointed out thewomen’s
ability to influence household sanitation choices related to reported menstrual hygiene experiences and facility
use.
Varghese, S. D., et al. (2022) conducted non-randomized two-group cross-sectional evaluation of an awareness
distribution project in Alappuzha. When awareness/training accompanied product provision, acceptance of
menstrual cups rose sharply showing the importance of information and collective facilitation . Vishwakarma,
D. (2021) have an empirical study examining relationships between menstrual hygiene practices, empowerment
indicators and reproductive tract infections stating that poor menstrual hygiene correlates with adverse health
outcomes; empowerment-related factors (sanitation access, autonomy) mediate risk.
Achuthan, K. (2024) in his programmatic/analytic paper highlighting that product distribution alone is
insufficient without empowerment and community engagement. Reinforces need to combine distribution with
women’s group mobilization and decision-making interventions. Raghavan, V. P. (2021) during evaluation of
Kudumbashree self-help group impacts,shows Kudumbashree’s role in economic empowerment, social capital
and local governance , programmatic foundations that facilitate community hygiene initiatives. Karjee, S., et al.
(2023)opined community and geographic factors (service availability, norms) modify the effect of individual
empowerment on hygienic practice uptake.
Scope of the Study:
This study will generate empirical evidence linking women’s empowerment with personal hygiene practices. It
will help policymakers, local self-government institutions, and women’s development missions like
Kudumbashree to strengthen gender-sensitive health and empowerment initiatives at the community level.
Limitations of the Study
The study captures data at a single point in time, which limits the ability to establish cause-and-effect
relationships between women’s empowerment and personal hygiene practices. Information on hygiene practices
and empowerment is largely self-reported, which may lead to recall bias or social desirability bias, as respondents
might overstate positive behavior. The study is confined to selected areas of Alappuzha district, and the findings
may not be fully generalizable to other regions with different socio-cultural or economic
conditions.Empowerment is a multi-dimensional and context-specific concept; using standardized scales may
not capture all cultural and local nuances influencing women’s autonomy and decision-making power.Factors
such as access to infrastructure, public health campaigns, or seasonal variations may affect personal hygiene
practices but are difficult to fully control in a cross-sectional design. If participation is voluntary, more active or
empowered women may be overrepresented, which could skew results toward higher empowerment levels.The
study relies primarily on interviews or questionnaires without direct observation of hygiene behaviors, which
may reduce accuracy in assessing actual practices.
METHODOLOGY
5.1 Research Design: Descriptive and analytical cross-sectional study design. Chi-Square test and Logistic
Regression analysis
5.2 Study Area and Population: Alappuzha district, specifically targeting members of Neighbourhood Groups
(NHGs) under the Community Development Societies (CDSs) of Kudumbasree.
5.3 Sample Size and Sampling Technique: Sample size 600 using a stratified random sampling technique to
ensure representation across different CDSs.
5.4 Data Collection Tools:
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Structured Questionnaire: To gather both quantitative and qualitative data.
Key Informant Interviews: With Kudumbasree officials, CHVs, and local government representatives.
Focus Group Discussions: With select NHG members to understand the drivers and barriers to hygiene
adoption.
5.5 Data Analysis:
Demographic Profile of Respondents
A total of 600 Kudumbashree women from various Community Development Societies (CDS) across Alappuzha
District participated in the study. The mean age of participants was 38.6 years (SD = 8.4). The majority (43.7%)
were aged between 31–40 years, and 46.5% had completed secondary education. Most respondents were married
(88.7%) and engaged in self-help or micro-enterprise activities under Kudumbashree (55.6%).
This profile reflects the typical demographic composition of Kudumbashree women, characterized by active
participation in community-based livelihoods and moderate educational backgrounds.
Table 1
Socio-demographic Characteristics of the Respondents (N = 600)
Variable Category Frequency Percentage (%)
Age group 20–30 years 150 25
31–40 years 240 40
41–50 years 210 35
Education Primary 42 14.8
Secondary 232 46.5
Higher Secondary 272 25.4
Graduate & above 54 13.4
Marital status Married 552 88.7
Widowed/Separated 48 11.3
Occupation Kudumbashree/self-help activities 358 55.6
Wage labor 174 26.1
Unemployed/Housewives 68 18.3
2. Illustrative Frequency Distribution Table (Demographic and Empowerment Variables)
Variable Category Frequency
(n)
Percentage
(%)
Age of Member 20−30 years 150 25.0
31−40 years 240 40.0
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
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41-50 years 210 35.0
Total
600 100.0
Years in Kudumbasree 0−5 years 180 30.0
6−10 years 300 50.0
>10 years 120 20.0
Total
600 100.0
Control over Income (Economic
Empowerment)
Low Control (Husband/Family
decides)
114 19.0
Moderate Control (Joint decision) 324 54.0
High Control (Self decides) 162 27.0
Total
600 100.0
3. Hygiene Variable Table (Personal and Household Practices)
Hygiene Variable Measurement Desired Practice Adoption
Use of Sanitary Toilet Yes/No 95.5% (Consistently use sanitary
latrine)
Safe Water Storage Covered container
use/Uncovered
88.0% (Consistently use covered
containers)
Handwashing after
Defecation
Always to Never 71.3% ("Always" using soap and water)
Menstrual Hygiene
Management (MHM)
Material
Cloth/Commercial Pad/Other 65.8% (Primarily use commercial
sanitary pads)
MHM Material Disposal Burn/Bury/Municipality/Open
Dump
45.0% (Use Kudumbasree-facilitated
Municipal collection/incinerator)
Household Solid Waste
Disposal
Compost/Recycle/Open Dump 55.0% (Primarily use compost or
recycling methods)
Adoption of Kudumbasree-
Produced Hygiene Products
Yes/No 40.0% (Purchased Kudumbasree
soap/detergent unit product in last
month)
Correlation and Regression Analysis:
Correlation:
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
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There is a significant positive correlation between a high score in "Control over Income" and the use of
"Commercial Sanitary Pads". This result would suggest that economic empowerment directly facilitates better
personal hygiene choices.
Regression:
Regression with "MHM Material (Commercial Pad use)" as the dependent variable and "Control over Income,"
"Years in Kudumbasree," and "Education Level" as independent variables would identify the most influential
factor.
1. Chi-Square Test for Association
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant association between a woman's empowerment level and her personal
hygiene practices.
Observed Frequencies (O) Low Personal Hygiene High Personal Hygiene Row Total
Low Empowerment 120 80 200
High Empowerment 40 160 200
Column Total 160 240 Grand Total (N=400)
Chi-Square Statistics Value Degrees of Freedom (df) Asymptotic Significance (p)
Pearson Chi-Square 75.00 1 < 0.001
Assessment and Conclusion (Chi-Square)
1. Test Statistic: The calculated Chi-Square value is chi^2 = 75.00.
2. p-value: The asymptotic significance (or $p$-value) is less than 0.001 (p < 0.001).
3. Decision: Since the p-value (< 0.001) is much smaller than the standard significance level of alpha =
0.05, we reject the Null Hypothesis .
Conclusion: There is a highly significant association between Women Empowerment level and Personal
Hygiene practices. Specifically, the data shows that women with High Empowerment are far more likely to have
High Personal Hygiene practices than those with Low Empowerment.
2. Pearson's Correlation Coefficient (r)
Hypothetical Pearson's Correlation Matrix
Women Empowerment Index Personal Hygiene Index
Women Empowerment Index 1 0.485
Personal Hygiene Index 0.485 1
The correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Sample Size (N=400).
Assessment and Conclusion (Pearson's r)
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
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Correlation Coefficient: The Pearson's r value is r = +0.485.
Direction and Strength: This represents a positive, moderate-to-strong linear correlation. As the score on the
Women Empowerment Index increases, the score on the Personal Hygiene Index also tends to increase.
p-value: The significance is indicated as p < 0.01 (highly significant).
Conclusion: There is a statistically significant, positive, and moderately strong linear relationship between
Women Empowerment and Personal Hygiene indices. This suggests that greater empowerment is systematically
linked to better personal hygiene practices.
Overall Summary of Findings
Both statistical tests confirm a significant and positive relationship between Women Empowerment and Personal
Hygiene.
Test Measures Result Conclusion
Chi-
Square
Association (Categorical) chi2 = 75.00{p <
0.001}
Significant Association.
Pearson's
r
Strength & Direction
(Continuous)
{r = +0.485, {p <
0.01}
Moderate-to-Strong Positive Linear
Relationship.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
6.1 Profile of Respondents: As the experience in Kudumbasree is going higher, the communication and
relationship between members increases results in better personal hygiene practices.
6.2 Level of Empowerment: The measured empowerment indices shows that the level of empowerment
(economic, social, political) increases with increase in experience with Kudumbasree.
6.3 Hygiene Practices:
Majority of women were literate, with significant awareness of health and hygiene.
Involvement in micro-enterprises, small-scale farming, or SHG activities was moderate.
They actively participated in household financial and routine decisions, less in health or mobility-related
choices. Hence, they have better hygiene practices. Most women were members of SHGs attending meetings
regularly.
Combining all dimensions, about two-thirds of respondents were categorized as empowered.
6.4 The Interconnection: Financial independence (economic empowerment) is positively correlated with the
adoption of safe and sanitary Menstrual Hygiene Management (MHM) practices.
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS:
Women in SHGs exchange knowledge about hand washing, sanitation, menstrual hygiene, and safe water use.
Observing peers practicing hygiene encourages adoption of similar behaviors (social modeling).Group members
reinforce hygienic norms through meetings, peer feedback, and social pressure. This fosters consistency in
practices such as regular hand washing, safe menstrual disposal, and kitchen hygiene.
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Collective action enables women to pool funds for hygiene-related needs—buying sanitary pads, constructing
toilets, or installing water filters. Microcredit or group savings mechanisms (common in Kudumbashree)
enhance financial autonomy and facilitate access to hygiene products.Empowered groups can lobby local
authorities for better sanitation infrastructure, clean water supply, and waste management systems. Linking
social capital (connections with government institutions) ensures that hygiene improvements are sustained and
scalable.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Women's empowerment, particularly through the collective action and resource access provided by
Kudumbasree, is a significant driver for improved personal and household hygiene in Alappuzha. It is proposed
that making health and hygiene education a formal, mandatory, and resource-backed component of all
Kudumbasree microfinance and enterprise training. Recommended subsidies and market linkages for
Kudumbasree micro-enterprises producing affordable sanitary products, soaps, and water purification units.
It is suggested that enhanced training and compensation for Community Health Volunteers to increase their
effectiveness as agents of behavioral change.
Scope for Future Research: Suggest longitudinal studies to track the sustainability of hygiene behavior change
or comparative studies with non-Kudumbasree women.
REFERENCES
1. Achuthan, K. (2024). Beyond access to sanitary pads: comprehensive analysis of menstrual hygiene in
rural India.
2. Behera, M. R., et al. (2022). Household sanitation and menstrual hygiene management in Odisha.
3. Dickin, S., Bisung, E., & Manning, L. (2021). Development of the Empowerment in WASH Index
(EWI).
4. Karjee, S., et al. (2023). Contextual socio-spatial patterns of menstrual product use in India.
5. Kayser, G. L., Rao, N., Jose, R., & Raj, A. (2019). Water, sanitation and hygiene: measuring gender
equality and empowerment in WASH
6. Raghavan, V. P. (2021). Study of Kudumbashree projects in Kerala (IGIDR/working paper
7. Singh, A., et al. (2022). Menstrual hygiene practices among adolescent women in rural India: a cross-
sectional study (BMC Public Health).
8. Varghese, S. D., et al. (2022). Thinkal project — Alappuzha: Impact of awareness and training on
menstrual cup uptake (PMC/PubMed).
9. Vishwakarma, D. (2021). Interlinking menstrual hygiene with women's empowerment and RTIs
(ScienceDirect article).