INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue X October 2025
Page 1249
Newspaper Reportage of Water, Sanitation, And Hygiene Issues in
Nigeria: A Systematic Literature Review
1 Shitta, Bweseh Habila; 1 Umar, Columbus Garba; 2 Bulus, Kwebu Ishaya
1 Department of Mass Communication, Taraba State University, Jalingo
2 Department of Public Health, Taraba State University, Jalingo
DOI: https://doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2025.1210000110
Received: 02 October 2025; Accepted: 10 October 2025; Published: 06 November 2025
ABSTRACT
This systematic review synthesises 88 empirical and conceptual studies on newspaper reporting of Water,
Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) issues in Nigeria, analysing themes, frames, tones, regional differences,
theoretical frameworks, research methodologies, and overall literature synthesis. The findings indicate that
sanitation (43. 26%) and water (33. 33%) receive the most coverage, whereas hygiene and open defecation are
accorded less attention. Regional disparities are evident, with a higher prevalence of studies from Northern
Nigeria (19. 32%) compared to the southern regions (7. 95%). Theories such as Agenda Setting and Framing
Theory (19% and 16%, respectively) are frequently utilised, underscoring the media' s influence in shaping
public perception. The review identifies nine predominant frames, with ‘Problem and Risk’ (33. 33%) and
‘Crisis’ (27. 84%) being most prominent, reflecting the media' s focus on urgent WASH issues and crises. The
‘Health and Safety’ frame (13. 64%) also plays a significant role, while the ‘Economic Impact’ (3. 41%) and
‘Solution- Oriented’ (4. 55%) frames are less prevalent, indicating a reactive, event- driven approach. Regarding
tone, advocacy (49%) and negative tones (24%) predominate, emphasising awareness and highlighting
deficiencies within WASH systems. Conversely, positive (16%) and neutral (11%) tones are less frequently
employed, limiting solution- focused discourse. The most common research methodologies include content
analysis (48%) and mixed methods (24%), which elucidate WASH framing. The findings identify several
opportunities for further research, including the impact of underreporting WASH issues in marginalised
communities on public health in Nigeria. The need to investigate the media representation of women and children
in WASH reporting and the role of the media in advocating for sustainable water and sanitation policy reforms.
These proposed research directions aim to fill existing gaps in understanding the influence of media on public
health and policy development within the WASH sector.
Keywords: WASH, SDG-6, Nigeria, newspaper, media, Reportage, public health communication
INTRODUCTION
Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) issues are crucial for public health, human dignity, and sustainable
development worldwide. In 2010, the United Nations General Assembly officially recognised access to safe
drinking water and sanitation as a human right (UN, 2010; Brown, Neves-Silva, & Heller, 2016; Nehaluddin,
2021; Baer, 2022). This dedication is embodied in Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6), which aims to
achieve universal access to sanitation and hygiene while promoting sustainable water management by 2030
(Arora & Mishra, 2022; Okesanya et al., 2024).
However, despite notable progress, WASH challenges are still widespread globally. The World Health
Organisation (WHO) and UNICEF report that more than 2 billion people still lack access to safely managed
drinking water, while 771 million do not have basic water services. Additionally, about 3.6 billion people use
sanitation facilities that release untreated human waste, posing serious health and environmental risks
(WHO/UNICEF, 2021; WHO, 2023). It is estimated that approximately 3 billion people lack basic handwashing
facilities, and 1.9 billion do not have access to essential sanitation services (Nischal, 2019; WHO, 2023;
Angelakis et al., 2023; Mouadden et al., 2025).
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In Nigeria, issues related to Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) persist as a significant public health
concern. The nation faces deficiencies in water supply and sanitation infrastructure, characterised by inadequate
drainage systems, widespread open defecation practices, poor hygiene facilities and limited access to safe
drinking water (Sanusi et al., 2022; Melea, 2023; Cherono, 2024; Ukpabi, 2024). Waterborne diseases, including
cholera, malaria, diarrheal diseases, typhoid, and Guinea worm infestations, continue to pose substantial public
health risks (Arku & Fiasorgbor, 2013; Ajibade & Ojedokun, 2019; Melea, 2023; Suleiman, 2023; Gulumbe et
al., 2023; Ihua et al., 2024; Cherono, 2024; Beker et al., 2024; Ekhoragbon, 2024). These challenges are
exacerbated by rapid urbanisation, environmental degradation, climate change, and lapses in governmental
oversight (Akpabio & Rowan, 2021; Budge et al., 2022; Ayelazuno & Tetteh, 2025). The economic burden of
poor sanitation is estimated to be approximately $3 billion annually, accounting for about 1.3% of Nigeria's
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (Ekoh, Anih, & Eneh, 2023).
The media, especially newspapers, can play a crucial role in raising public awareness, shaping policy
discussions, and influencing government actions on the WASH sector (Appiah et al., 2020; Bassey, 2022; Ajisafe
& Babaleye, 2024; Olayiwola & Taye, 2024). Through agenda-setting and framing of issues, newspapers hold a
central position in promoting sanitation and hygiene practices, thereby enhancing public understanding of WASH
practices (Asemah, 2015; Bello, 2015; Okorie, 2024).
In spite of the central role the media plays in advancing the WASH cause, empirical evidence indicates that
newspaper reporting on WASH issues in Nigeria remains fragmented, infrequent, mostly reactive and episodic
(Obuah, 2017; Adinlewa & Olubodede, 2022; Sanusi et al., 2022; Melea, 2023; Lamai et al., 2024; Olayiwola
& Taye, 2024; Ogadimma et al., 2025; Bassey, 2025; Lucas et al., 2025). WASH topics are often relegated to the
back pages, overshadowed by stories on politics, crime, or economy (Popoola, 2014; Bello, 2015; Asemah, 2015;
Obuah & Okon, 2017; He et al., 2018; Ogu, 2020; Obasi & Msughter, 2023; Okorie, 2024). Furthermore,
coverage mainly highlights crisis events, such as cholera outbreaks or environmental disasters, rather than
offering regular, detailed reporting on systemic WASH challenges or ongoing policies (Oforibika, Alalibo, &
Solomon, 2018; Obasi & Msughter, 2023; John & Ajibade, 2024).
Similarly, despite the significant role of media in promoting the WASH agenda, existing research on this subject
within Nigeria remains limited and fragmented. Most studies concentrate on localized case analyses (Arku &
Fiasorgbor, 2013; Ajibade & Ojedokun, 2019; Melea, 2023; Suleiman, 2023; Cherono, 2024; Ajayi & Qudus,
2022; Sanusi et al., 2022; Adinlewa & Olubodede, 2022; Gulumbe et al., 2023; Mustapha et al., 2022; Maren,
2024; Bassey, 2025; Nnabuife & Okonkwo, 2022), analyses of specific media outlets (Popoola, 2014; Asemah,
2015; Obuah & Okon, 2017; Zannah, 2017; Oforibika, Alalibo, & Solomon, 2018; Mbangati, 2020; Mugo, 2020;
Obasi & Msughter, 2023; Okorie, 2024; Melea, 2023; Nwosu & Okoroafor, 2025), or thematic reviews of
isolated WASH-related issues, such as open defecation or drainage sanitation (Melea, 2023; Haruna, 2023; Lamai
et al., 2024c; Lucas, Laguma, & Akodu, 2025a). This deficiency in a cohesive analytical framework underscores
the necessity for a systematic review that consolidates these studies, identifies recurring trends and framing
techniques, assesses empirical findings, and highlights research gaps. Such an approach will facilitate a more
comprehensive understanding of the media's role in shaping public discourse on WASH issues. It will further
establish a foundation for advancing the WASH agenda in alignment with the 2030 target of UN Goal 6.
In light of the above, this study aims to undertake a systematic review of existing scholarly articles and studies,
focusing on how Nigerian newspapers cover and report water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) issues.
Specifically, the review seeks to analyse the thematic focus of WASH reporting found in the studies. It also
examines the regional representation within the studies, as well as the methodological approaches and theoretical
underpinnings. Furthermore, the review identifies gaps in media framing, policy connections, and audience
engagement, contributing to a comprehensive understanding of the media's role in addressing WASH issues in
Nigeria and developing societies.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The following objectives will guide the study:
i. To identify the thematic focus in WASH reportage in existing studies
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
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ii. To identify major frames and tones employed in WASH reportage from the studies
iii. To examine the regional disparities from the studies on WASH reportage in Nigeria
iv. To bring out the dominant theories and methodologies in the extant literature.
v. To synthesise the findings from the studies and identify gaps for future research.
METHODS
This study employed a qualitative research design to conduct a systematic review of existing scholarly articles
on newspaper coverage and reportage of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) issues in Nigeria. The primary
data sources included academic databases such as Google Scholar, JSTOR, Academia, and ResearchGate, as
well as reports from reputable organisations like the WHO and UNICEF. The search terms used were “WASH
and media in Nigeria,” “newspaper coverage of sanitation,” “open defecation in Nigerian newspapers,”
“communication strategies and WASH,” “framing of hygiene behaviour,” “SDG 6 and journalism,” and
“environmental journalism in Nigeria,” among others.
The study used discourse analysis to explore the themes, tone, and framing of WASH issues in the literature. The
main techniques involved identifying common themes, frames, biases, and regional views in WASH coverage,
as well as assessing the application of media and health communication theories.
Data analysis was carried out using both qualitative and quantitative methods. Qualitative analysis involved
thematic coding to identify recurring patterns, key themes, and gaps in the literature. This process enabled the
systematic categorisation of WASH issues across the studies, supporting a detailed exploration of how these
issues were presented, framed, and communicated.
In addition to the qualitative analysis, quantitative techniques were used to measure the frequency and
prominence of specific WASH issues across the studies. This involved categorising the issues and presenting
them in frequency distribution tables and charts. The goal was to synthesise the findings, analyse the distribution
of focus among various WASH topics, and assess the emphasis on specific issues in the existing literature. This
mixed-methods approach offered a deeper understanding of thematic patterns and provided a solid statistical
overview of the prevalence of WASH topics.
The data extraction process was guided by the standards set by PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for
Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) and narrative review frameworks (Moher et al., 2009), by taking
cognisance of rigorous inclusion and exclusion criteria as follows:
i. Focus explicitly on newspaper or media coverage of WASH or environmental health issues.
ii. Present empirical data, either through content analysis, surveys, interviews, or mixed methods.
iii. Be published in English between 2010 and August 2025.
iv. Include WASH-related themes, such as water, open defecation, hygiene practices, sanitation, or related
public health messaging/communication strategies.
v. Engage with communication theories or concepts such as agenda-setting, framing, risk communication,
or behavioural change.
Studies that focused solely on the technical, engineering, or economic aspects of WASH without analysing media
and communication were excluded, unless they explicitly examined public communication or advocacy
dynamics.
The review’s initial search found 3,245 publications across databases: Google Scholar (1,531), JSTOR (364),
Academia (646), and Researchgate (704). After applying the criteria, 88 studies met the required standard. The
PRISMA diagram is given below.
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Figure 1: PRISMA Table
FINDINGS/DISCUSSION
Thematic Focus in the Reportage of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene
Table 1: Most Studied Themes on WASH Newspaper Reportage in Nigeria
Thematic Category Study Count (Frequency) Percentage (%)
Water 47 33.33%
Sanitation 61 43.26%
Hygiene 14 9.93%
Open Defecation 19 13.48%
Total 141 100%
An analysis of Nigerian newspaper coverage on WASH (Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene) issues shows a strong
focus on sanitation and water topics. Sanitation was the most covered theme, appearing in 61 studies (43.26%),
highlighting ongoing challenges such as waste management and open defecation. Water issues also garnered
significant attention, with 47 studies (33.33%), primarily focusing on water scarcity and contamination. Hygiene,
essential for preventing diseases such as cholera, typhoid, diarrheal diseases, and malaria, was less frequently
covered, featuring in only 14 studies (9.93%). Open defecation was discussed in 19 studies (13.48%),
E
li
g
ib
il
it
y
Id
en
ti
fi
ca
ti
o
n
Records identified from:
Databases (= 3,245)
Records removed before screening:
Duplicate records removed (n = 500)
Records marked as ineligible by
automation tools (n = 200)
Records removed for other reasons (n = )
Records screened
(n = 2,545)
Records excluded
(n = 1,800)
Reports sought for retrieval
(n = 745) Reports not retrieved
(n = 45)
Reports assessed for
eligibility (n = 700)
Reports were excluded for these reasons:
No access to full articles (n = 423)
Studies not aligned with Objectives (n = 126)
Predatory Articles (n = 63)
S
cr
e
en
in
g
In
cl
u
d
ed
Studies included for review
(n = 88)
Reports of included studies
(n = 88)
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underscoring its widespread occurrence, especially in rural areas. To this end, the media’s reporting on WASH
issues plays an important role in enhancing public health in Nigeria.
The media’s coverage of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) issues in Nigeria primarily focuses on
sanitation and water-related topics, with sanitation being the most covered theme (43.26%) and water issues
receiving considerable attention (33.33%). Despite this significant focus, hygiene and open defecation remain
relatively underreported (9.93% & 13.48%), which is concerning given their public health implications. Nigeria,
as the world’s open defecation capital since 2019 (Melea, 2023) is a wakeup call to prioritise media reportage
and address the persistent problem. The widespread prevalence of open defecation and inadequate sanitation
facilities continues to pose major barriers to public health in the country; however, media coverage often falls
short of providing comprehensive, ongoing reporting on these issues (Ajayi & Qudus, 2022; Wami, 2023). The
predominance of episodic and crisis-driven coverage, typically emerging during outbreaks or government
interventions, limits the media’s capacity to sustain attention on systemic challenges such as open defecation
and hygiene (Shang et al., 2015; Sanusi et al., 2022). This consistent failure to emphasise the issues results in a
lack of sustained public pressure and policy focus on addressing these deeply rooted problems (Bello, 2015;
Oforibika, Alalibo, & Solomon, 2018).
Although the media occasionally highlights the urgency of sanitation and water issues, it largely neglects
ongoing challenges related to hygiene and open defecation (Wami, 2023). This gap in media coverage worsens
Nigeria’s sanitation crisis, as issues like inadequate toilets and poor waste management facilities continue to
impact millions of Nigerians (Shang et al., 2015; Okpara, 2025). Despite the introduction of various policy
documents and strategies aimed at tackling WASH challenges, the absence of sustained media engagement has
hampered the effective implementation of these policies (Melea, 2023; Obasi & Msughter, 2023). Furthermore,
limited coverage of key interventions by organisations such as UNICEF and IOM, which are crucial in
addressing these issues, hampers public awareness of ongoing efforts and reduces the chances of mobilising the
necessary support (Bell, 2022; Usman et al., 2023).
The findings reveal significant gaps in Nigerian media coverage of WASH issues, especially concerning hygiene
and open defecation. These gaps have vital implications for WASH advocacy, journalism training, and
government communication. The media should move from sporadic to consistent, in-depth reporting on systemic
WASH challenges. Journalism training ought to emphasise proactive advocacy and accountability in WASH
coverage. Government communication strategies must provide ongoing media updates on WASH progress,
fostering public awareness and support.
Major frames in the reportage of WASH
Table 2: Major Frames Used in the Study on WASH Reporting by Newspapers in Nigeria
Frame Number of Studies Percentage (%)
Problem and Risk 29 33.33
Crisis 25 27.84
Health and Safety 12 13.64
Political and Policy Influence 7 8.02
Community and Behavioural
Change
6 6.82
Economic Impact 3 3.41
Social Justice 2 2.27
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Solution-Oriented 4 4.55
Total 88 100%
The frequency distribution indicated the utilisation of nine dominant frames within the study. The findings reveal
a predominant emphasis on specific aspects of WASH coverage. Notably, the ‘Problem and Risk’ frame emerged
as the most dominant, accounting for 33.33% of responses, which reflects the media’s tendency to prioritise
WASH-related challenges as urgent and hazardous. Crisi frame followed with 27.84%, indicating a focus on
immediate, high-impact events such as outbreaks or environmental disasters. The ‘Health and Safety’ frame,
comprising 13.64%, underscores the media’s role in correlating WASH issues with public health concerns.
Further, frames, including ‘Political and Policy Influence’ (8.02%) and ‘Community and Behavioural Change’
(6.82%), illustrate the intersection of WASH issues with broader societal and political contexts. Conversely,
frames such as ‘Economic Impact’ (3.41%), ‘Social Justice’ (2.27%) and ‘Solution-Oriented’ received less
attention, suggesting that while media predominantly concentrates on crisis and health dimensions, there is a
limited examination of economic, social and solution aspects of WASH issues.
Accordingly, the findings from the data above suggest a reactive and event-driven reporting style, with less focus
on long-term solutions or systemic reforms. This also indicates that media coverage of WASH is mainly reactive,
often triggered by crises such as cholera outbreaks, flooding, or official interventions. There is a lack of
consistent, investigative, and development-oriented journalism to address water access, sanitation equity, and
hygiene practices that can set the agenda or frame WASH issues beyond episodic and event-driven reporting to
influence policy efforts (Melea, 2023; Obasi & Msughter, 2023; Oforibika, Alalibo, & Solomon, 2018).
Chagutah (2010) described this as a pattern of “crisis journalism,” where focus peaks during environmental
emergencies but quickly diminishes. These patterns are observed in Nigeria and other regions, where WASH
stories mainly relate to emergencies rather than ongoing structural issues (Rahmatullah, 2024; Okorie, 2024;
Sanusi et al., 2022; Bello, Shittu, & Suleiman, 2024). This event-driven approach to reporting restricts public
awareness and hampers policy development on critical WASH challenges.
The findings emphasise the importance of shifting WASH advocacy from immediate crisis response to
sustainable solutions and preventive measures. This further entails that journalism training and reportage must
focus on investigative reporting related to systemic WASH challenges to foster greater public involvement.
Additionally, government communication strategies need to prioritise transparent and consistent dissemination
of WASH policies to support continuous public engagement.
Tone of WASH Reporting
Figure 1: Tone of WASH Reporting in Nigeria
Neutral, 10,
11%
Advocacy, 43,
49%
Negative, 21,
24%
Positive, 14,
16%
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The tone in Nigerian newspaper reporting on Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) issues shows that
advocacy and negative tones are the most prevalent, with these two categories making up the largest share of
responses. Advocacy-focused reporting, which promotes action and change, accounts for 49% of media content,
stressing the media’s role in promoting solutions and raising awareness on key issues like open defecation and
sanitation challenges. Negative tones, which emphasise problems such as poor infrastructure and health risks,
constitute 24%. This indicates that, although the media recognise the urgency of WASH issues, much of the
coverage concentrates on exposing failures and deficiencies in sanitation and water management. Positive and
neutral tones, although present, are less represented, suggesting that while solutions are suggested, there remains
a focus on reporting ongoing struggles within the sector.
The above findings show that the tone of WASH reportage frequently fluctuates between advocacy, negativity,
neutrality, and positivity. Research indicates that although some Nigerian newspapers endeavour to practice
advocacy journalism on issues such as water, open defecation, poor hygiene and sanitation practices, however,
they remain either neutral or adopt a distant, bureaucratic tone that fails to evoke an emotional response from
readers (Sanusi et al., 2022; Lamai et al., 2024; Olayiwola & Taye, 2024; Ogadimma et al., 2025; Bassey, 2025).
For instance, Bello (2015) and Asemah (2015) observed that health-related stories, including those related to
sanitation and poor hygiene, are often characterised by technical language, excessive jargon, and inadequate
coverage on lead pages or editorial columns, thus diminishing their resonance and impact.
In light of the Health Belief Model (HBM), the advocacy tone, which constitutes 49% of the coverage, can be
construed as an endeavour to incite behavioural change by accentuating the benefits of enhanced sanitation
practices. Nonetheless, as Sriram & Maheswari (2013) and Bello (2015) underscore, these media reports
frequently underutilise the emotional and psychological appeals imperative for fostering long-term behavioural
change, primarily due to inconsistent engagement and the absence of clear, actionable solutions. The scant
representation of positive (16%) and neutral (11%) tones further exacerbates this disparity, as these tones are
vital for delivering a balanced narrative that highlights the personal and communal benefits of adopting WASH
practices. Consequently, whilst Nigerian media demonstrates an awareness of WASH challenges and advocates
for action through journalism, the tone often remains predominantly reactive and episodic, emphasising failures
and crises over sustainable solutions. This reactive stance curtails the efficacy of media in mobilising public
participation and effectuating enduring behavioural change, as indicated by Framing Theory and the HBM. It
therefore becomes imperative for media stakeholders to develop more consistent, inclusive, and emotionally
resonant media narratives that address crises while also offering comprehensive solutions and ongoing advocacy
for WASH improvements.
Regional Disparities in WASH Reportage in Nigeria
Table 3: Regional Disparities in WASH Reportage
Region Number of Studies Percentage
Northern Nigeria 17 19.32%
Southern Nigeria 7 7.95%
National 47 53.41%
Other Countries 17 19.32%
Total 88 100%
An analysis of regional disparities in studies on newspaper reportage of WASH in Nigeria reveals significant
media focus at the national level, with 47 studies (53.41%) dedicated to national issues. This reflects widespread
WASH challenges across the country. Northern Nigeria had 17 studies (19.32%), highlighting the region’s
particular difficulties, especially in rural and conflict-affected zones. Southern Nigeria was represented by 7
studies (7.95%), indicating less attention, possibly due to the region’s better infrastructure. International studies
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comprised 17 studies (19.32%) and offered a comparative outlook on WASH issues. The foregoing findings
suggest the need for unified national strategies and highlight urgent WASH challenges in Northern Nigeria, along
with opportunities for increased media coverage across Nigeria.
Furthermore, the findings on regional disparities in media coverage of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH)
issues are relevant both within Nigeria and across other comparable African countries. In Nigeria, WASH
coverage tends to be episodic, with the media mainly reporting on crises such as cholera outbreaks, flooding,
and official responses, while systemic issues like water access and sanitation equity often remain underreported
(Melea, 2023; Bello, 2015). This pattern is similar to that in several other African nations, including Ghana,
Zambia, and Cameroon, where urban WASH challenges attract more media attention than rural ones (Chagutah,
2010; Arku & Fiasorgbor, 2013; Nkemnyi et al., 2016; Kanyanga, 2017). In Ghana, for instance, urban sanitation
issues are given greater prominence in the media, whereas rural sanitation problems tend to be overlooked
(Anderson, 2019; Kanyanga, 2017). Likewise, in Nigeria, rural areas and peri-urban regions frequently
experience underreporting of their sanitation issues, with much of the media’s focus remaining on urban centres
and political narratives (Asemah, 2015; Melea, 2023; Ekhoragbon, 2024).
While some African countries, such as Kenya, have experienced greater engagement with local communities in
WASH reporting, this remains the exception rather than the norm. In Kenya, the media has made progress in
highlighting grassroots solutions and empowering marginalised communities (Nkemnyi et al., 2016). However,
even in Kenya, media coverage is mainly reactive, usually triggered by disease outbreaks or disasters, rather
than promoting ongoing discussions on the structural issues in water, sanitation, and hygiene (Siyao et al., 2025).
This reflects a broader pattern of event-driven reporting seen across the continent, where the media tend to focus
on immediate crises rather than long-term developmental challenges.
An analysis comparing Nigeria with neighbouring countries indicates that the difficulties Nigerian media face
in reporting on WASH issues reflect a broader continental trend. Countries such as Ghana, Zimbabwe and
Zambia also tend to underreport and focus heavily on government-led narratives in their WASH coverage
(Chagutah, 2010; Arku & Fiasorgbor, 2013; Kanyanga, 2017). Media in these countries often highlight official
statements or responses to sanitation problems, rarely questioning the effectiveness or sustainability of these
solutions (Lam et al., 2017; Anderson, 2019). Coverage generally emphasises institutional views, often
overlooking the actual experiences of those most affected by WASH challenges (Melea, 2023).
The regional disparities in WASH reporting across Nigeria and similar trends in other African countries highlight
the need for more balanced, consistent, and inclusive media coverage. The intense focus on urban centres and
episodic crises reveals an urgent gap in addressing rural sanitation issues, which are often neglected. This
indicates that WASH advocacy must target both urban and rural areas, ensuring that marginalised communities
have a voice in the media. Journalism training should stress the importance of covering systemic issues alongside
crises, fostering a more comprehensive and investigative approach to WASH reporting. Government
communication strategies need to ensure that media narratives are not dominated by political or crisis-driven
content but instead emphasise long-term solutions, empowering local communities and offering actionable,
sustainable approaches to WASH challenges.
The analysis of dominant theories in WASH reportage studies in Nigeria shows that Agenda Setting (19%) and
Framing theory (16%) are the most commonly used. This highlights a strong focus on the media’s role in shaping
public discourse and framing societal understanding of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) issues. The
Participatory Communication theory (12%) emphasises the important role of community involvement and
engagement in addressing WASH challenges, indicating that grassroots participation is key for sustainable
behaviour change. The Health Belief Model (HBM) (10%) and Social and Behaviour Change Communication
(SBCC) (9%) theories focus on the psychological aspects of individual health perceptions and their impact on
adopting healthier sanitation and hygiene practices. The theory underpins the need for targeted interventions that
address behaviour at the individual level. Furthermore, Development Support Communication (DSC) (8%) is
utilised to promote communication strategies that integrate WASH initiatives into broader development
frameworks. A notable 26% of the studies did not explicitly specify a theoretical framework, suggesting they
adopt a more flexible and integrated approach to WASH communication, combining elements from multiple
theories to address the complex nature of WASH challenges in Nigeria. This variety in theoretical application
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reflects the complexity of WASH communication, which requires a comprehensive understanding of media,
community dynamics, individual health behaviours, and development policies.
Dominant Theories and Methodological Approaches in the Studies on WASH Reportage in Nigeria
Figure 2: Dominant Theories in Studies of WASH Reportage in Nigeria
The findings buttress the significance of Agenda-Setting Theory, which emphasises the media’s role in
prioritising WASH issues by consistently reporting topics such as sanitation and water access, the media can
ensure these matters stay prominent within public and policy agendas, thereby encouraging sustained action.
Similarly, Framing Theory clarifies that the media’s focus on crises can limit engagement with long-term
solutions. Transitioning to preventive and systemic reforms in media narratives could foster a more proactive
approach. The Health Belief Model (HBM) also suggests that media should emphasise the personal and
community benefits of improved sanitation practices, using emotional appeals to motivate behavioural change.
Also, Development Communication Theory points out the importance of integrating WASH communication
within broader development initiatives, thereby promoting community participation and policy coherence.
Combining these theories into journalism training and government strategies can improve WASH coverage,
support policy reforms, and promote ongoing public engagement.
Table 4: Dominant Methods in Studies of WASH Reportage in Nigeria
Methodology Frequency of Use Percentage (%)
Content Analysis 51 48%
Mixed-Methods 26 24%
Survey Research 16 15%
Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) 6 6%
In-depth Interviews 7 7%
Total 106 100%
Agenda Setting
19%
Participatory
Communication
12%
Framing
Theory
16%HBM
10%
SBCC
9%
DSC
8%
No Theory
26%
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Figure 3: Dominant Methods in Studies of WASH Reportage in Nigeria
The analysis of methodologies in WASH reportage studies shows that Content Analysis is the most common
approach, used in 51 studies (48%), highlighting its effectiveness in systematically examining media coverage
of water, sanitation, and hygiene issues. This method enables researchers to quantify and analyse patterns,
themes, and framing in media content, which is vital for understanding the media’s influence in shaping public
discourse. Mixed methods are utilised in 26 studies (24%), combining qualitative and quantitative approaches
to offer a comprehensive perspective. Survey Research is employed in 16 studies (15%), allowing researchers
to gather broad data on public awareness and behaviours. Other methods, such as Focus Group Discussions (6%)
and In-depth Interviews (7%), although less frequent, are valuable for gaining qualitative insights. The
prominence of content analysis is based on its practical utility in providing objective and detailed insights into
the media’s portrayal of issues. Mixed methods enrich the analysis by integrating multiple viewpoints.
The main methodologies in WASH reporting, particularly Content Analysis (48%) and Mixed Methods (24%),
reveal important opportunities to enhance policy and advocacy in Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH).
Content Analysis provides a systematic approach to understanding how media influences public discourse and
frames WASH issues, supporting policy development and advocacy efforts. When media coverage is measured
by frequency, framing, tone, regional disparities, and placement in print newspapers, it reveals gaps in
representation and project areas needing more attention, especially beyond crisis reporting. This emphasises the
crucial role of advocacy groups. Similarly, Mixed Methods improves understanding of public perceptions and
media effects, enabling more effective engagement strategies. Qualitative techniques such as Focus Group
Discussions and In-depth Interviews offer deeper insights into the emotional impact of WASH issues, assisting
in the creation of more nuanced advocacy. The findings underscore the need for improved journalism training
using frameworks like Framing and Agenda-Setting. These frameworks promote sustained, strategic WASH
coverage and development communication theories to address developmental deficits related to WASH reportage
barriers. These insights suggest that government engagement with the media should be more proactive and
comprehensive, integrating long-term solutions to enhance public participation and policy change.
Synthesis of findings and research gaps
The following table is based on the final selections of the empirical articles used in the systematic review. It
details the author(s) of the articles, key themes, main findings and methodologies. The synthesis of literature is
based on the results contained in the table and the conceptual literature which account for thirty studies as
discussed in the succeeding paragraphs.
Content
Analysis
48%
Mixed Methods
24%
Survey
Research
15%
FGDs
6%
Interviews
7%
Content Analysis Mixed Methods Survey Research
FGDs Interviews
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Table 5: Data Visualisation Table
S/N Author(s) Key Themes Main Findings Methodologies
1
Haruna, S.
(2023)
Communication
media, drainage,
sanitation, and
behaviour change
The majority of
respondents receive
information via radio;
radio use is ineffective for
behaviour change
Survey
2
Arku, F. S., &
Fiasorgbor, D.
(2013)
MDG sanitation,
rural-urban
differentials,
media coverage
Media coverage favours
rural areas, but the
sanitation target of MDG
7C remains unmet.
Content Analysis
3
Nwaerema, P.,
et al. (2023)
Environmental
sanitation,
communication
practice, Port
Harcourt
Radio is the most utilised
medium, but
communication does not
significantly affect
sanitation practices.
Mixed Methods – Survey &
Interviews
4
Anderson, M.
T. (2019)
Sanitation,
communication
strategies, and
institutional
cooperation
Effective communication
strategies improved
awareness, but challenges
remained with
coordination.
Mixed-Methods: Survey &
Interviews
5
Kanyanga, N.
R. (2017)
Water supply,
sanitation,
communication,
Lusaka project
Low community
participation, but most are
aware of the project’s
existence.
Mixed-Methods: Survey &
Interviews
6
Nwankwo, I.
U. (2017)
Media,
environmental
health education,
Onitsha Urban
The media plays a
minimal role in
environmental health
education, with low
awareness of sanitation
issues.
Mixed-Methods: Survey &
Interviews
7
Obuah, P.F.,
Okon, G.B.
(2017)
Waste
management,
communication
strategies, and
compliance
High awareness of
campaigns, but low
compliance with waste
disposal procedures.
Survey
8
Obasi, M. C.,
& Msughter, A.
E. (2023)
Environmental
hazards, mining
communities, and
media coverage
The media's neglect of
environmental issues in
mining communities, with
no dedicated coverage.
Mixed-Methods: Survey,
Content Analysis, Interviews
9
Omondi, P.,
Onyango, M.,
& Museve, E.
(2020)
Communication
mode, strategy
implementation,
Communication mode
had no significant effect
on water service
provision.
Mixed-Methods: Survey &
Interviews
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water service
provision
10
Nkemnyi, M.
F., et al. (2016)
Media
communication,
environmental
behaviour, Buea,
Cameroon
Media communication
was insufficient in
promoting positive
environmental
behaviours.
Mixed-Methods: Survey, In-
Depth Interviews, & Field
Observations
11
Ibenyenwa, N.
C., &
Kenechukwu,
S. A. (2024)
Media campaign,
waste disposal,
Oye-Ekiti,
behavioural
health attitudes
Media campaigns had
minimal impact on waste
disposal behaviours.
Survey
12
Ngobeka, L., &
Nyirenda, M.
(2024)
Communication
strategies, water
safety, public
perception,
Zambia
Social media is
underutilised, and there is
limited public
engagement with
messages on water safety.
Mixed-Methods: Survey,
Interviews
13
Hurlimann, A.,
& Dolnicar, S.
(2012)
Water
conservation,
media influence,
public policy
Media coverage lacked
scientific backing and
impartiality, affecting
public opinion.
Content Analysis
14
Aliyu, M. F.
(2020)
SDGs, health &
environmental
issues, media
coverage in
Nigerian
newspapers
Low media coverage of
SDGs, especially health
and environmental issues.
Content Analysis
15
Lamai, O. M.,
et al. (2024)
Open defecation,
media influence,
Nasarawa State,
Nigeria
Media messages on open
defecation were
inadequate.
Survey
16
Murugu, F.,
Too, V., &
Mwenda, C. N.
M. (2024)
Hygiene
practices, mass
media influence,
Garba Tula Sub-
county
A moderate relationship
was found between media
exposure and hygiene
practices.
Mixed-Methods: Survey,
Interviews
17
Nazir, F., et al.
(2025)
Water issues,
agenda setting,
framing, Pakistan
Jang newspaper is more
influential in agenda
setting, and coverage is
biased.
Mixed Methods: Content
Analysis, Survey
18
Nwosu, N. C.,
& Okoroafor,
E. K. (2025)
Environmental
awareness, radio
programming,
Ogoni, Eleme
communities
Limited awareness of the
“Ogoni Clean-up Show”
among Eleme residents.
Mixed-Methods: Survey,
Focus Group Discussion
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19
Simooya, S. M.
(2011)
Public
environmental
awareness,
Zambian media,
and
environmental
journalism
Environmental issues are
poorly covered; more
space is dedicated to
political news.
Mixed-Methods, Content
Analysis, Interviews, Survey
20
Okorie, K.
(2024)
Environmental
pollution, media
coverage,
Nigerian
newspapers
Uneven coverage of
environmental pollution;
low focus on air pollution.
Content Analysis
21 Oforibika, A.
G., Alalibo, I.
K., &
Solomon, L.
(2018)
Environmental
pollution,
reportage,
Nigerian
newspapers
Limited coverage on
environmental pollution;
focus on oil spillage.
Content Analysis
22 Rauf, A; Ali, S;
Irfan, (2021)
Media coverage,
environmental
issues, Urdu vs
English press
Limited agenda-setting
for environmental issues
in Pakistani media.
Content Analysis
23 Asemah, E. S.
(2015)
Newspaper
coverage, health
issues, Nigeria
Low coverage of health
issues like hygiene
practices, especially rural
health.
Content Analysis
24 Melea, J. M.
(2023)
Open defecation,
media coverage,
Nigerian
newspapers
Undercoverage of open
defecation issues; the
government major news
source.
Content Analysis
25 Lamai, O. M.,
Igyuve, A., &
Akase, T. M.
(2024)
UNICEF, anti-
open defecation
campaign,
communication
strategies
Communication strategies
are not yielding the
desired impact.
Survey
26 Lucas, B. D.,
Laguma, J., &
Akodu, P. K.
(2025)
Open defecation,
Plateau State,
PEPSA strategies
Communication strategies
have not been effective
due to poor attitude and a
lack of sustainability.
Mixed-Methods, In-Depth
Interviews, Survey
27 Lamai, O. M.,
Tsgyu, S., &
Bernard, D. L.
(2024)
Waste
management,
communication
strategies, Lafia
Metropolis
Communication strategies
are not yielding the
desired impact.
Survey
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28 Lucas, B. D.,
Laguma, J., &
Akodu, P. K.
(2025)
Open defecation,
Jos North, PEPSA
strategies
Communication strategies
have not been effective
due to a poor attitude and
insufficient monitoring.
Mixed-Methods, In-Depth
Interviews, Survey
29 Popoola, M.
(2014)
Environmental
issues, newspaper
reportage, Nigeria
Erosion and flood
received the most
coverage; feature stories
predominantly used.
Content Analysis
30 Ajisafe, O. &
Babaleye, T.
(2024)
Open defecation,
media advocacy,
Southwest
Nigeria
95% aware of open
defecation; media
advocacy is necessary to
eliminate the practice
Mixed Methods: Survey
Focus Group Discussions,
31 Zannah, M.
(2017)
Radio stations,
sanitation
awareness,
Makindye,
Uganda
Limited role of radio
stations in raising
sanitation awareness.
Mixed Methods: Survey,
Interview
32 Lam, S.,
Cunsolo, A.,
Sawatzky, A.,
et al. (2017)
Drinking water
security,
Indigenous
communities,
Canada
Limited media coverage
on water challenges in
Indigenous communities.
Survey
33 Mayeda, A. M.,
Boyd, A. D.,
Paveglio, T. B.,
et al. (2019)
Water issues,
health risks,
media
representation,
U.S. West
Health risks rarely
mentioned in media
coverage on water issues.
Content Analysis,
34 Shang, W.,
Zheng, H.,
Wang, Z., et al.
(2015)
Water issues,
media coverage,
China
Increased attention on
recreational water, lack of
consistent coverage on
policy documents.
Content Analysis
35 Siyao, P. O.,
Mbughuni, A.
S., &
Chishami, A.
M. (2025)
Environmental
conservation,
newspaper
coverage,
Tanzania
Minimal attention to
environmental
conservation in Tanzanian
newspapers.
Content Analysis
36 Chagutah, T.
(2010)
Environmental
reporting,
Zimbabwean
press,
sustainability
Environmental news is
primarily event-centred,
lacking in-depth
discussions.
Content Analysis
37 Sriram, A., &
Maheswari, U.
(2013)
Sanitation,
hygiene
behaviour change,
rural India
IEC ineffective in
creating awareness on
sanitation; new
Focus Group Discussion,
Survey
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communication strategies
suggested.
38 Liu, R., Xiao,
Y., Fang, T., et
al. (2025)
Environmental
news, water
policy, SDG6,
Middle East
Media coverage positively
influenced water policy
reforms.
Text Analysis
39 Rahmatullah,
M. (2024)
Environmental
issues, media
coverage,
Rangpur,
Bangladesh
Limited coverage on
environmental issues;
simple news emphasis.
Mixed-Methods, Content
Analysis, Observation
Method
40 Partha, S. B., &
Nahar, M.
(2023)
Environmental
issues, media
reactivity,
Bangladesh
Only 25% proactive
environmental coverage;
there is a need for more
proactive reporting.
Mixed Methods: Content
Analysis, In-Depth Interviews
41
Gupta, J., &
Bakshi, R.
(2023)
Social media in
promoting
environmental
awareness,
Swachh Bharat
Abhiyaan impact
Social media plays a
critical role in spreading
the Swachh Bharat
Abhiyaan and influencing
public behaviour towards
cleanliness.
Meta-Analysis Of Existing
Research Papers
42
Bello, S. M.
(2015)
Health
communication,
media coverage
of health issues,
newspaper
influence on
health behavior
Moderate coverage of
HIV/AIDS, malaria, and
polio; media's role in
shaping health behaviour;
challenges in health
reporting.
Content Analysis, Survey, In-
Depth Interviews
43
Ogu, E. C.
(2020)
Environmental
journalism,
sustainable
development, the
media's role in
environmental
protection
Media plays a vital role in
promoting sustainable
development; calls for
more environmental
journalism coverage.
Library Research, Secondary
Data Analysis
44
Ezeaka, N. B.,
&
Bartholomew,
C. E. (2025)
Environmental
sanitation, health
communication,
WASH,
behavioural
change
Health communication is
crucial for behavioural
change in sanitation;
multi-sectoral and
participatory approaches
are needed.
Interviews, Surveys
45
Appiah, B., et
al. (2019)
Public
engagement,
water, sanitation,
hygiene, and
There is weak
engagement between
scientists, journalists, and
the public; there is a need
Key Informant Interviews,
Focus Group Discussions,
Thematic Analysis
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communication
barriers
for improved
communication training.
46
Zannah, M.
(2017)
Radio as a tool
for sanitation
awareness,
community
participation in
sanitation
Radio has a significant
role in sanitation
awareness but inadequate
campaigns hinder its
effectiveness.
Descriptive Survey,
Interviews
47
Kamara, F. S.
(2021)
Media's role in
water governance,
public
participation,
water shortage
issues
Media reports on water
shortages but lack a
communication strategy
for policy reforms.
Mixed Methods (Survey,
Interviews, Focus Groups)
48
Mbangati, O. F.
(2020)
Community radio,
sanitation
promotion, public
awareness
Community radio
enhances public
awareness but challenges
remain in fully addressing
sanitation issues.
Qualitative And Quantitative
Methods, Surveys, Statistical
Analysis
49
Phiri, F. J.
(2015)
Water
management
communication,
community
participation,
Lusaka sewer
project
Communication strategies
for community
participation were mixed;
improvements needed for
better engagement.
Mixed Methods (Quantitative,
Qualitative, Surveys,
Interviews)
50
Mugo, E. K.
(2020)
Media's impact
on water access,
community
mobilization,
local water
management
Radio is the most
common media platform,
but has a limited effect on
improving water access
and use.
Descriptive Study, Key
Informant Interviews, Focus
Group Discussions
51
Bassey, A. U.
(2025)
Open defecation,
sanitation
campaigns, public
health,
communication
strategies
AEPB's communication
strategies are ineffective
due to public attitudes and
inadequate monitoring.
Survey Research, Structured
Questionnaires, Quantitative
Analysis
52
Nnabuife, S.
O., &
Okonkwo, C.
E. (2022)
Open defecation
awareness,
behavior change,
public health
campaigns
Exposure to ODF
messages did not lead to a
change in behaviour as
open defecation practices
persist.
Survey Research,
Questionnaire, Statistical
Analysis (Chi-Square)
53
Nkonde, N.
(2021)
Market hygiene,
sanitation
communication,
and effectiveness
English as a
communication medium
in the Kalingalinga
Descriptive & Exploratory
Designs
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of communication
strategies
market was ineffective
due to language barriers.
54
Adinlewa, T.,
& Olubodede,
E. O. (2022)
Anti-open
defecation
campaigns,
attitude change,
sanitation
behaviours
Anti-open defecation
campaigns significantly
influenced attitudes and
practices towards
sanitation in Owo Local
Government.
Survey Research,
55
Dansoho, B. T.,
et al. (2023)
Disaster risk
reduction, media
coverage of flood
disaster,
psychometric
paradigm
Media coverage focused
more on post-flood
reportage rather than pre-
flood disaster risk
reduction.
Mixed Methods, Content
Analysis, Interviews
56
Anderson, M.
T. (2019)
Sanitation crisis,
communication
strategies, waste
management,
institutional
cooperation
Cooperation between
Zoomlion and LaDMA
improved sanitation, but
financial and behavioural
challenges remain.
Mixed Methods (Secondary
Data, Survey, Interviews)
57
Aladago, N., et
al. (2024)
Sanitation, solid
waste
management,
behaviour change
communication,
community
mobilisation
Weak community
participation in waste
management; need for
better communication and
community involvement.
Mixed-Method Approach,
Survey, Semi-Structured
Interviews
58
Utami, I. H., et
al. (2024)
Open defecation,
health
communication,
behaviour change
strategies
Face-to-face
communication was
ineffective due to
unreliable sources; a
multi-channel strategy is
recommended.
In-Depth Interviews, Focus
Group Discussions,
Observations
The findings of the systematic review regarding the manner in which Nigerian newspapers report Water,
Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) issues underscore the significant role of the media in raising public awareness
and influencing policy formulation. Although the media serves a central function in highlighting WASH
challenges, coverage remains inconsistent and tends to emphasise certain topics more than others. Sanitation
emerges as the most prominently covered theme, representing 43.26% of studies (Arku & Fiasorgbor, 2013;
Obuah & Okon, 2017; Anderson, 2019; Ezeudu, 2020; Haruna, 2023; Ngobeka & Nyirenda, 2024; Lucas et al.,
2025b), followed by water at 33.33% (Hurlimann & Dolnicar, 2012; Mayeda et al., 2019; Omondi et al., 2020;
Nazir et al., 2025; Liu et al., 2025). Conversely, hygiene and open defecation receive comparatively less
attention, constituting only 9.93% and 13.48%, respectively (Bello, 2015; Ajayi & Qudus, 2022; Nnabuife &
Okonkwo, 2022; Shittu, 2023; Melea, 2023; Murugu et al., 2024; Lamai et al., 2024b). This distribution of focus
reflects Nigeria’s ongoing sanitation emergencies, particularly in urban and rural areas, where inadequate waste
management and open defecation continue to pose significant threats to public health (Sanusi et al., 2022; Melea,
2023).
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The regional disparities in media coverage further highlight the need for a more nuanced and region-specific
approach in addressing WASH issues. While national issues dominate the media discourse, with 53.41% of the
studies reflecting widespread WASH challenges across the country, Northern Nigeria receives a disproportionate
share of attention (19.32%) compared to Southern Nigeria (7.95%). This regional focus, particularly on the
North, underscores the unique challenges faced by this region, where WASH issues are exacerbated by factors
such as conflict and poor infrastructure. At the same time, the Southern region remains underreported, suggesting
that rural areas across Nigeria are overlooked in WASH coverage, despite significant sanitation and water access
gaps persisting there.
Methodologically, the studies predominantly rely on content analysis (48%), which offers a systematic means of
exploring how WASH issues are framed and reported across media platforms. Content analysis has proven
effective in quantifying patterns of media portrayal and identifying thematic trends, such as the prominence of
crisis-driven narratives over sustained, developmental coverage (Kayode & Adeniran, 2012; Bello, 2015). The
application of mixed-method approaches (24%) enriches the analysis by providing both qualitative and
quantitative insights into the public’s perception of media messages and their impact on behaviour change
regarding sanitation practices (Obuah & Okon, 2017; Haruna, 2023). Theoretical frameworks such as Agenda
Setting (18.56%) and Framing Theory (15.46%) dominate the literature, reflecting a predominant focus on the
media's role in influencing public discourse and prioritising WASH issues (Aliyu, 2020; Obasi & Msughter,
2023; Melea, 2023; Rauf, Ali, & Irfan, 2021; Okorie, 2024). While these theories emphasise the media’s power
to shape the public agenda, they often overlook the practical implications for behavioural change, particularly in
relation to the adoption of improved sanitation practices (Shittu, 2023).
Despite the valuable contributions of these theoretical frameworks, significant gaps exist in the literature,
particularly regarding the underreporting of WASH issues in rural and marginalised communities. A recurring
theme in the media’s coverage is the prioritisation of political or economic narratives over health and sanitation
concerns, particularly in rural areas where WASH issues are most acute. Moreover, vulnerable populations,
particularly women and children, who bear the disproportionate burden of inadequate sanitation, remain
underrepresented in media coverage. This oversight calls for a shift in focus towards these groups, ensuring that
their needs and experiences are adequately captured in WASH reporting.
Furthermore, future research is needed to broaden the geographical scope of media studies to include
underserved rural areas and explore how media can utilise diverse communication strategies to promote
behaviour change. While some studies have addressed the potential of media to engage communities and
encourage sustainable sanitation practices, there remains a lack of research on the direct effect of media coverage
on actual sanitation behaviours. Understanding and documenting the influence of media coverage on behaviours
such as increased toilet use or reductions in open defecation could offer valuable insights into the potential of
media to foster lasting behavioural change in WASH practices.
Integrating comprehensive health communication strategies into media reporting on WASH issues could greatly
improve public engagement and foster lasting behavioural change. Moving from a reactive, crisis-focused
approach to ongoing, detailed, and solution-driven reporting can help the public engage more meaningfully with
WASH issues and support the wider goal of enhancing sanitation standards. Strategies like regular public service
announcements, community participation initiatives, and utilisation of local languages could be particularly
effective. This change would necessitate a focused effort from both the media and government to develop
transparent and consistent communication channels that emphasise long-term, systemic solutions to WASH
challenges. Additionally, such an approach would deepen the public’s understanding of the personal and
community benefits of better sanitation practices, creating a more informed and proactive citizenry.
Although the media assumes a crucial role in enhancing public awareness of WASH issues, this review
underscores several notable gaps in literature, especially concerning rural and vulnerable populations. It is
essential to develop more comprehensive, region-specific media reports that emphasise solutions, are grounded
in a robust theoretical framework, and utilise diverse methodologies. Therefore, research should prioritise
addressing these gaps by investigating the capacity of media to influence behaviour change and exploring the
integration of health communication strategies to ensure the enduring success of WASH initiatives.
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Implication for Theory
The theoretical implication of this systematic review is that it has enhanced understanding of the media's role in
the water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) sector in Nigeria. The predominant use of agenda-setting and framing
theory highlights the strong influence of the media in shaping public discourse and prioritising WASH-related
issues. The study also contributes to the discussion on the media's power to determine what is deemed important.
However, the literature indicates that these theories are inadequate to fully explain the behavioural changes
driven by media coverage, particularly regarding hygiene practices. Furthermore, the limited use of theories such
as participatory communication and the health belief model in addressing community engagement and
behavioural change underscores the necessity for more comprehensive theoretical frameworks that combine
media influence with health behaviour models.
Implication for Practice
The findings reveal a significant gap between media coverage and its potential to drive tangible improvements
in public health outcomes, particularly in areas such as hygiene and the reduction of open defecation. The
disproportionate focus on urban and national-level issues, with limited coverage of rural and underserved areas,
calls for a more targeted approach in media reporting. Practitioners should focus on increasing media
engagement at the local level, especially in regions with significant sanitation challenges, to raise awareness and
influence behaviour. Furthermore, there is a clear need to integrate comprehensive health communication
strategies into WASH media campaigns, which could involve community-driven media initiatives and
collaboration with local stakeholders to ensure the more effective dissemination of information.
Research Gap and Future Directions
Arising from the findings furnished by the insights from the extant literature reviewed and the research gaps
identified, further scholarly and empirical researches are suggested in the following thematic areas:
i. An Assessment of the Impact of Underreporting of WASH Issues in Marginalised Communities on Public
Health in Nigeria
ii. Media Representation of Women and Children in Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) Reporting in
Nigeria
iii. An Investigation of the Role of Media in Advocating for Long-Term Water and Sanitation Policy Changes
in Nigeria
CONCLUSION
The systematic review of newspaper reportage on Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) issues in Nigeria
primarily focused on sanitation (43.26%) and water-related topics (33.33%), while hygiene and open defecation
received less coverage. Regional disparities in media coverage reveal that Northern Nigeria is more prominently
featured (21.05%) compared to the Southern region (9.21%), highlighting the necessity for a more balanced
media approach that specifically addresses the WASH challenges faced by rural and underserved communities.
The dominance of theoretical frameworks such as Agenda Setting and Framing emphasises the media’s influence
in shaping public discourse; however, gaps persist in assessing the media's effectiveness in inducing tangible
behavioural change concerning WASH.
Despite the methodological strengths of content analysis and mixed-methods research, significant gaps remain
in the literature, particularly regarding vulnerable populations and rural areas. Future research should aim to
broaden the geographical scope, investigate how media can influence behaviour change in sanitation practices,
and incorporate health communication strategies to encourage sustainable sanitation behaviours. This approach
will be crucial in improving Nigeria's WASH outcomes and aligning with global public health goals.
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