INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue X October 2025
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The Influence of WhatsApp Use on Spousal Abuse among Married
Women in Kwale County, Kenya
Mbula Bernadine1, Sande Anne2, Mutukaa Samuel3
1 PhD Candidate, Department of Social Sciences, Chuka University
2 Department of Social Sciences, Chuka University
3 Department of Sociology, Anthropology and Community Development, South Eastern Kenya
University
DOI: https://doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2025.1210000133
Received: 02 October 2025; Accepted: 10 October 2025; Published: 07 November 2025
ABSTRACT
This paper explores the association between WhatsApp use and spousal abuse among married women in Kwale
County, Kenya. A mixed-methods correlational design was employed, combining survey data from 263
respondents with insights from key informant semi-structured interviews. Independent variables included
duration of WhatsApp use, hours spent daily, number of messages exchanged, group membership, and
purposeful use (work/family). Dependent variables measured physical injuries, spousal threats, and control of
phone/social media. Results indicate that while general duration of WhatsApp use is not significantly associated
with physical injuries, purposeful use and group membership are strongly correlated with threats and controlling
behaviours. Qualitative findings suggest that women’s visibility and economic use of WhatsApp sometimes
provoke jealousy and conflict. The study recommends digital-safety interventions, privacy awareness
campaigns, and training for community leaders on recognising the role of social media platforms in spousal
abuse.
Keywords: WhatsApp, spousal abuse, intimate partner violence, Kenya, social media
BACKGROUND
Spousal abuse is a global problem since Sardinha et al. (2022) indicate that nearly 1 in 3 women across the world
experience physical and/or sexual violence from an intimate partner during their lifetime. Spousal abuse should
not be confused with intimate partner violence (IPV) because it is confined within marital settings. Although this
field of study is well-established, most investigations focus on traditional drivers of spousal abuse, such as
patriarchy, economic dependency, and religious beliefs (Hardesty & Ogolsky, 2020). Therefore, emerging factors
that introduce new dimensions in marriage do not received adequate attention. There is an increasing attention
in research towards the role of commonly used social media platforms, such as WhatsApp, on spousal abuse.
The new dimensions introduced by emerging trends, such as WhatsApp use can be captured through the
functionalist social change theory and the diffusion of innovations (DOI) theory. From the perspective of the
functionalist social change theory, WhatsApp use causes a dysfunction in marriage that manifests as
misunderstandings and conflicts (Gebremariam et al., 2024). These conflicts and misunderstandings may
escalate to different forms of spousal abuse. From the perspective of the DOI theory, as people begin and
continue to use social media platforms, such as WhatsApp, their behaviours and norms are likely to change due
to exposure to new perspectives and lifestyles (Bailey et al., 2024). Husbands may not welcome such changes,
leading conflicts with their wives. When they poorly handle conflicts, husbands may end up abusing their wives.
Bailey et al. (2024) points out that social media platforms, including WhatsApp, are increasingly serving as tools
for abusive partners to monitor, harass, and control their spouses through cyberstalking, emotional manipulation,
and public shaming. As such, there is a need to integrate the role of social media in spousal abuse research to
avoid single-sided focus on patriarchy and male dominance. Globally, WhatsApp has become one of the most
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue X October 2025
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widely used messaging platforms, with over two billion users by 2024. Its appeal lies in low-cost instant
messaging, group chats, and multimedia sharing (Nadel Harony et al., 2023). While its encrypted nature protects
privacy, studies also show that features such as “last seen” and read receipts often trigger jealousy and conflict
in intimate relationships (Woodlock, 2017). In some cases, WhatsApp has been weaponised for surveillance,
harassment, and coercive control within marriages (Emond et al., 2023). In Sub-Saharan Africa, WhatsApp
dominates mobile communication due to affordability and accessibility. Beyond personal use, it is increasingly
central to political mobilisation, community networking, and small-scale businesses. Yet, women’s participation
in WhatsApp groups or economic use of the platform often clashes with patriarchal expectations, leading to
accusations of neglecting family responsibilities or infidelity (Ouma & Achieng, 2021). In Kenya, WhatsApp is
the most widely used digital platform, with uptake across rural and urban populations. While it empowers women
by enabling business opportunities and social support, reports from Kwale County highlight growing marital
conflicts linked to WhatsApp use. Men often monitor messages or restrict women’s group participation, with
some cases escalating into physical or psychological abuse (Mbula, 2025). Despite its prominence, empirical
studies on WhatsApp’s role in spousal abuse remain limited, creating a gap this study aims to fill.
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
The study employed a correlational research design under a mixed-methods framework. This design was
appropriate because it allowed for the examination of statistical impact of WhatsApp use on spousal abuse, while
also capturing lived experiences through qualitative interviews (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018). The multistage,
purposive and snowball sampling methods allowed the collection of qualitative data from key informants, which
complemented quantitative findings.
Population and Sampling
The target population comprised married women in Kwale County. A stratified random sampling approach
yielded 399 respondents representing both rural and peri-urban settings. The actual sample size of 263 was
realised that translated to 65% of the sample and is acceptable as a strong response rate in social science
according to Kharuddin et al., (2020). Seven key informants, including chiefs, community health assistants,
professional counsellors, and police officers, were purposively sampled to provide expert insights (Mbula, 2025).
Data Collection Instruments
Structured questionnaires captured quantitative data various aspects of WhatsApp use alongside indicators of
spousal abuse (physical injuries, spousal threats, and control over phone/social media). Semi-structured
interviews were conducted to collect qualitative data on women’s experiences (Mwangi & Otieno, 2023).
Validity and Reliability
The instruments were reviewed by criminology and gender experts to ensure content validity. A pilot study
conducted with 30 women in a neighbouring county yielded Cronbach’s alpha coefficient above 0.70, confirming
acceptable reliability (Patel & Singh, 2020).
Variables and Measures
WhatsApp use was the independent variable and was measured based on aspects, including years of using the
platform, hours spent on the platform daily, number of daily messages, frequency of purposeful use, and
WhatsApp group membership. The dependent variable was spousal abuse against married women, measured
based on the frequency of physical injuries from abuse, spousal threats, and controlling behaviour.
Ethical Considerations
Ethical approval was obtained from the university’s research committee. All respondents were fully informed of
the study’s objectives, potential risks, and benefits before providing written informed consent. Participation was
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
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voluntary and respondents were allow not to answer to questions that made them uncomfortable. Confidentiality
was maintained by assigning the respondents anonymous identifiers, as personal identifying data were not
collected. The information obtained from the participants was only used for the purposes of the study.
Data Analysis
Quantitative data were processed in SPSS v25. Descriptive statistics summarized demographic characteristics,
WhatsApp use, and spousal abuse. Pearson’s correlation examined bivariate relationships, and multiple
regression identified predictive variables. Qualitative data were thematically coded and triangulated with
quantitative findings (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018).
RESULTS
Descriptive Statistics
With 263 questionnaires filled and returned, the study achieved a response rate of 65.9%. Table 1 below presents
the demographic characteristics of the participants. The study sample was relatively young since respondents
aged 21-30 years (35.7%) and 31-40 years (34.2%) were the majority. The demographic findings reveal that
over 62% of respondents had at least secondary school certificate, while those with no formal education were
only 2.7%. Such findings are a positive sign of women in empowerment Kwale County. The respondents had a
high unemployment rate since 40.7% of them had no jobs. Farmers were 22.4%, self-employed women were
13.3%, and those with formal employment made up 13.3% of the respondents. The high unemployment rate is
a high risk for spousal abuse, as it increases the dependence of wives on their husbands. Most of the respondents
were low income earners since 43% of them earned less than Ksh. 5000 monthly. Those who earned above Ksh.
30,000 monthly were a mere 9.9%, signifying limited economic empowerment of married women. About 61.2%
of married women in Kwale lived in rural areas, while peri-urban and urban dwellers were 24% and 14.8%,
respectively. The duration of being married also varied significantly, which respondents married for 1-5 years
being the majority (33.5%). More details are presented in Table 1 below.
Table 1: Demographics Characteristics of Participants
Demographic Variables N Percentage (%)
Age Group 20 years and below 20 7.6%
21-30 years 94 35.7%
31-40 years 90 34.2%
41-50 years 44 16.7%
Above 50 years 15 5.7%
Current Occupation Unemployed 107 40.7%
Self-employed 35 13.3%
Formal employment 41 15.6%
Casual Laborer 19 7.2%
Farmer 59 22.4%
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue X October 2025
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Student 2 0.8%
Highest Level of
Education
No formal education 7 2.7%
Primary Level 51 19.4%
Secondary level 107 40.7%
College/Technical Training 73 27.8%
Bachelor's Degree 19 7.2%
Postgraduate Degree 6 2.3%
Monthly Income Below 5,000 113 43.0%
5,001-10,000 53 20.2%
10,001-20,000 47 17.9%
20,001-30,000 24 9.1%
Above 30,000 26 9.9%
Residency Rural 161 61.2%
Peri-urban 63 24.0%
Urban 39 14.8%
Duration in marriage 1-5 years 88 33.5%
6-10 years 82 31.2%
11-15 years 60 22.8%
More than 15 years 33 12.5%
Frequency of Spousal Abuse
The study evaluated the frequency of forms of spousal abuse against women, including physical injuries from
abuse, spousal threats, and controlling behaviour. Figure 1 below reveals that occasional and frequent
experiences of physical injuries due to abuse were 17.5% and 12.5%, respectively. These findings suggest that
about a third of married women in Kwale County occasionally or frequently experience physical abuse. About
38% and 9.9% of all respondents reported occasional and frequent threats from their husbands, respectively.
These findings imply that spousal threats are the most frequent form of spousal abuse against married in this
study. Respondents who had occasional and frequent experiences of controlled access to phones or social media
were 25.9% and 11% respectively. Based on occasional and frequent experiences, threats was the second-most
frequent form of spousal abuse after spousal threats, followed by controlling behaviour and physical abuse.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
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Figure 1: Frequency of Spousal Abuse
Reporting Spousal Abuse
Evaluating the frequency at which the respondents reported spousal abuse was crucial for determining tolerance
and normalisation of this crime. The findings presented in Figure 2 below indicate that’s majority (55.2%) of
respondents in Kwale County had never reported being abused by their spouses. Those who reported abuse
occasionally and frequently was 24.0% and 3%, signifying a low reporting rate. The underreporting of spousal
abuse by married women reinforces the notion that husbands can get away with abusing their wives.
Figure 2: Reporting Spousal Abuse
The Use of WhatsApp by Married Women
On average, respondents spent 2.1 hours daily on WhatsApp and exchanged an average of nearly 47 messages.
More than half reported using WhatsApp for purposeful activities, such as work or family communication. These
findings highlight the centrality of of WhatsApp in the daily life of users, consistent with findings from Kenyan
families (Ouma & Achieng, 2021). Group membership averaged 7 groups, raising potential for both
empowerment and conflict when partners perceive participation as threatening. WhatsApp groups can be a
source of social network that married women can leverage for their growth and well-being. Table 1 presents the
findings on WhatsApp usage patterns among respondents.
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
Physical Injuries Spousal Threats Controlled Access to Phone and Social
Media
%
o
f
R
es
p
o
n
d
en
ts
Frequency of Spousal Abuse
Never Rarely Occasionally Frequently
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
Never Rarely Occasionally Frequently
%
o
f
R
es
p
o
n
d
en
ts
Frequency of Reporting Abuse
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Table 1: WhatsApp Usage Patterns among Respondents (N = 399)
Variable Mean SD Minimum Maximum
Duration of WhatsApp use (years) 2.8 1.29 1.0 6.0
Hours spent on WhatsApp/day 2.1 1.00 0.5 8.0
Number of messages sent/received/day 46.7 18.32 10 110
Group memberships 7.2 3.14 1 15
Purposeful use (work/family, yes %) 62% - - -
Perceived Influence of WhatsApp Use on Misunderstandings or Conflicts
The perception of the respondents on the perceived influence of WhatsApp helped to understand the contribution
of using WhatsApp to the risk of married women being abused by their husbands. Figure 3 below shows that
40.3% of respondents reported that WhatsApp never caused conflict with their spouses, suggesting that for a
substantial proportion, the platform is integrated into daily life without disrupting marital harmony. However,
16.3% experienced conflict rarely, 28.1% sometimes, and 15.2% frequently. This means that for nearly 60% of
the women surveyed, WhatsApp use had at least occasional negative impacts on spousal relations, potentially
linked to jealousy, misinterpretation of messages, secrecy, or excessive time spent online.
Figure 3: Frequency of Misunderstandings or Conflicts Due to WhatsApp Use
Correlation Analysis
Pearson correlation coefficient was used to analyse the relationship between forms of spousal abuse and various
aspects of WhatsApp use. Physical injuries from spousal abuse had a positive correlation with the use of
WhatsApp in purposeful activities, such as work, business, and family matters (r = 0.202, p = 0.001). As such,
women who used WhatsApp for such activities were more likely to report physical abuse. For spousal threats
had positive correlations with use in purposeful activities (r = 0.529, p < 0.001), daily messages (r = 0.244, p <
0.001), group membership (r = 0.383, p < 0.001), hours spent per day (r = 0.358, p < 0.001), and duration of use
(r = 0.353, p < 0.001). These results suggest that increased engagement with WhatsApp is linked to a higher
likelihood of experiencing spousal threats. Regarding control of access to phones and social media, all variables
except daily messages showed significant positive correlations. The strongest correlation was observed with
0.00%
5.00%
10.00%
15.00%
20.00%
25.00%
30.00%
35.00%
40.00%
45.00%
Never Rarely Sometimes Frequently
%
o
f
R
es
p
o
n
d
en
ts
Perceived Influence on Conflicts & Misunderstandings
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
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purposeful WhatsApp use (r = 0.383, p < 0.001), followed by group membership (r = 0.235, p < 0.001), daily
hours spent (r = 0.229, p < 0.001), and duration of use (r = 0.223, p < 0.001). This finding suggests that the more
actively and purposefully married women use WhatsApp, the more likely they are to experience controlling
behaviours that restrict their access to phone and social media. Table 2 shows Pearson correlations between
WhatsApp use and spousal abuse.
Table 2: Correlations between WhatsApp Use and Spousal Abuse
Physical Injuries
From Spousal
Abuse
Spousal Threats Control Access to
Phone and Social
Media
Duration of
use
Pearson Correlation -0.009 0.353** 0.223**
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.884 0.000 0.000
Daily hours
spent
Pearson Correlation 0.072 0.358** 0.229**
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.245 0.000 0.000
Daily
messages
Pearson Correlation -0.036 0.244** 0.076
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.556 0.000 0.217
WhatsApp
Groups
Pearson Correlation 0.091 0.383** 0.235**
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.141 0.000 0.000
Purposeful
Use
Pearson Correlation 0.202** 0.529** 0.383**
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.001 0.000 0.000
Statistical significance: *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01
Regression Analysis
Linear regression analyses were conducted to determine whether duration of use, hours spent daily, daily
messaging, group membership, and purposeful us of WhatsApp predict spousal abuse against married women.
For physical injuries from spousal abuse, two variables showed significant associations. The duration of using
WhatsApp was a negative predictor of physical injuries (β = -0.203, p = 0.020), suggesting that women who had
been using the platform for more years reported fewer instances of physical harm. The purposeful use of
WhatsApp for work, business, or family matters was positively associated with physical injuries (β = 0.197, p =
0.002). As such, when WhatsApp is used for goal-oriented activities, it might intensify disputes possibly due to
perceptions of neglect, jealousy, or suspicions about hidden communications. Purposeful WhatsApp use
positively predicted spousal threats (β = 0.448, p < 0.001) and controlling behaviour (β = 0.275, p < 0.001). The
number of messages sent daily was a negative predictor of controlling behaviour (β = -0.201, p = 0.033),
indicating that higher messaging activity was linked to less control over phone and social media access.
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Figure 4: Regression Coefficients of WhatsApp Use Predicting Spousal Abuse
Qualitative Findings
Key informants acknowledged that WhatsApp was a common used social media platform that enables married
individuals to communicate with each other and parties outside marriage. However, Chiefs and counsellors
confirmed that WhatsApp-related disputes are increasingly presented in community mediation forums. Infidelity
and seeking attention from other men were common accusations in many incidents of abuse. A local
administrative officer (area chief) stated, “Husbands have expressed suspicious that their wives planned dates
with other men through text messages even when they are in the same place.” Some men to the extent of spying
on the WhatsApp accounts of the wives. A professional counsellor noted, “I have handled cases where husbands
demand their wives to remove profile pictures and statuses that are sexually ‘revealing’, terming them attention-
seeking.” As such, women’s WhatsApp use may compound existing insecurities of husbands regarding their
wives’ behaviours. A common observation among the key informants was a trend where husbands are worried
when their wives spend much time chatting, especially when they are together. This pattern signifies the feeling
of being neglected or reduced intimacy due to excessive use of WhatsApp. When married women spend more
time chatting or video-calling, their husbands are more likely to demand to see the chats. Professional counsellors
and chiefs noted minimal cases of abuse when women participated in many WhatsApp groups.
DISCUSSION
While time spent on WhatsApp or number of messages may not directly relate to physical abuse, increased and
purposeful use in group contexts is more strongly linked to threats and controlling behaviours. This pattern
suggests that marital conflicts and abuse may be driven less by casual chatting and more by perceptions of
independence, exposure, and external networking facilitated through WhatsApp. These findings are consistent
with Faye et al. (2020) who found that couples who used WhatsApp more intensively were more likely to report
marital conflict and reduced expression of love, which are precursors of spousal abuse. Nnam and Dastile (2025)
associated marital conflicts with from ambiguous WhatsApp messages, perceived emotional infidelity triggered
by third-party contacts. Omokhabi et al. (2025) also found that WhatsApp use has the potential to cause marital
conflict by strain relationships when it is excessive or geared toward functional purposes. These accounts mirror
regional evidence of WhatsApp as a double-edged sword that empower but also expose women to new forms of
abuse.
The negative impact of duration of use implies that familiarity and established patterns of use reduce conflict
triggers over time. This finding aligns with the diffusion of innovations theory, which posit that as individuals
continue to use a technology, their understanding of the associated outcomes improves (Mattu & Saha, 2024).
As such, married women can discern and limit behaviours that can cause conflicts with their husbands after a
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Duration of use No. of messages Purposeful use
R
eg
re
ss
io
n
C
o
ef
fi
ci
en
t
(β
)
Regression Analysis
Physical Injuries Spousal Threats Controlling Behaviour
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
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long duration of use. From the perspective of functionalist social change theory, the findings suggest that married
women’s use of WhatsApp disrupts traditional patterns of communication and gendered control within marriage
(Siregar, 2022). The disruption can create tension as couples adapt to shifting roles, particularly when the
technology grants women more independence in networking, and information access. However, functionalist
terms such tensions as not purely destructive since they are social adjustment toward integrating the new
technology into marital relationships. These perspectives reveal how the emerging nature of WhatsApp use in
Kenya cause disruptions in marital relationships. When the disruptions are poorly managed, they lead to spousal
abuse. As such, there is a need for interventions that seek to improve the awareness of the tensions caused by
WhatsApp use by married individuals and how they can navigate such tensions to avoid conflict and spousal
abuse.
CONCLUSION
This study has revealed social media use by married women play a significant role in their abuse by their
husbands. How married women use WhatsApp can either increase or reduce their risk for spousal abuse. The
use of this platform can increase the risk of spousal abuse if it makes husbands jealous, suspicious of infidelity,
feel neglected, or threatened by the opportunities presented to their wives. Community-based awareness
campaigns can educate couples about the potential risks and consequences of unchecked use of WhatsApp within
marriages. Such intervention create informal controls that deter abusive husbands from taking advantage of their
wives. Awareness can contribute to reducing excessive use of WhatsApp and improve spousal support for
purposeful uses. Building trust between couples can help reduce jealousy and suspicious of infidelity by
reinforcing a sense of security. Counselling and support services should be strengthened and made more
accessible in rural areas to increase married women’s access to support. Since WhatsApp and other social media
platforms are inevitable realities in the digital era, couples should learn to use it responsibly to support each
other.
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