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Design and Implementation of Solar PV-Based Railway Microgrid
for Linke Hofmann Busch Coaches
Tapesh Yogia, Dinesh Birlaa, Dheeraj Kumar Dhakedb
aDepartment of Electrical Engineering, Rajasthan Technical University, Kota, India (324010)
b Department of Electrical Engineering, Veermata Jijabai Technological Institute
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2025.1210000146
Received: 25 October 2025; Accepted: 30 October 2025; Published: 08 November 2025
ABSTRACT
The demand for reliable, sustainable, and environmentally friendly transportation is the need of the hour, and
developments are underway for transportation purposes. The use of DG (diesel generator) sets and fuels increases
the emission of carbon dioxide and GHG (greenhouse gases) in transportation. Thus, causing pollution and
global warming, which could result in drastic climate change, extinction of living species, rising ocean levels,
and natural disasters. Non-conventional power sources like solar power, wind energy, and geothermal energy
are emerging as complementary power resources in place of conventional sources. This article has proposed a
Solar PV and storage-based system for power solutions of LHB (Linke Hofmann Busch, Germany) coaches used
in railway transportation. The integration of this solar PV system within a railway microgrid framework enables
intelligent energy management, ensuring efficient coordination between renewable generation, energy storage,
and coach power demand. The study has shown that the area available atop train coaches is more than sufficient
to generate the required power during sunlight hours. The power will be used through hotel load winding in the
locomotive using the HOG (Head on Generation) scheme during cloudy weather and nighttime. Rakes can be
used as energy generators while standing in the yard and can feed the energy to the grid, helping to save on
tariffs. The total calculation was made by observing a standard running route, the number of coaches, and DG
set usage. The cost of diesel is 90.70 INR/liter. In the proposed study, there will be an annual saving of
2,57,75,942 INR, corresponding to 2,84,189 liters of diesel per train per year after implementing this
arrangement. The establishment cost of this system would be recovered in approximately five months, as
calculated. Hence, the system implemented is a better solution for transportation that is reliable, sustainable, and
eco-friendly.
Keywords: LHB Coaches, Railway Micro-Grid, Solar photovoltaic, Transportation, Global horizontal
irradiation.
INTRODUCTION
Many energy-consuming sectors are experiencing daily increases in demand and consumption of energy. The
transport industry has a peak demand for energy. The International Energy Agency claims that the emissions
were produced by the transportation of 8.5 global transport in 2019 but due to the bedtime of covid-19, the good
news in 2020 (corona period) is that CO2 releases from the world transport sector decreased by 10%. The
transport sector is a significant contributor to the GHG (Green House Gases) emission of (CO2) that deteriorates
the environment [1]. Numerous fossil fuel sources and some other resources have highly increased global
warming due to increased greenhouse gases. Not only it is about the saving of fuel but also a reduction in
pollution can take place by using renewable sources for power solutions to the transportation system like Bus,
electric bikes, trains, etc. [2-3]. In this paper two coaches of DG sets are replaced with the two passenger coaches.
That will help to reduce global warming by supplying power from roof-installed solar panels. A study of the
workability of setting up solar photovoltaic (PV) arrays on the rooftop of coaches. This might be big step in
depend on conventional energy sources for railway transportation.
A railway microgrid is an integrated energy network designed to manage and optimize the generation,
distribution, and consumption of electrical power within railway systems. It combines renewable energy sources
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such as solar photovoltaic (PV) systems, energy storage units, and intelligent control mechanisms to ensure
reliable and sustainable power for traction and non-traction loads. In the context of Linke Hofmann Busch (LHB)
coaches, a railway microgrid enables on-board power autonomy through hybrid energy systems, reducing
dependency on diesel generators and overhead supply [4]. By incorporating smart energy management, real-
time monitoring, and AI-based fault detection and load balancing, railway microgrids enhance operational
efficiency, resilience, and environmental sustainability. This approach aligns with Indian Railways’ goal of
achieving net-zero carbon emissions while improving the reliability and energy efficiency of coach power
systems [5].
For the sake of environmental deterioration, Electric powered buses have been introduced by Adelaide city
council use power by solar PVs installed on the vehicle’s rooftop [6]. Operating costs of renewable energy
sources-based buses found less than the conventional energy (diesel/petrol) based [7]. Railways are one of the
parts of transportation fields and are popular for their largest transferred capacity, fast running speed, economy,
good facility, and superior comfort. Few countries are using the solar photovoltaic system installed on the roof
of trains. In Italy, solar panels were installed on five rail coaches of Hamar face leak company [8].
The coaching stock of Indian Railways includes four types of factory coaches [9]. The Linke Hoffman Bosch
(LHB) in Germany coaches can run at a much higher speed than ICF coaches and have a 1.7 M long span length
than ICF and RCF coaches which accommodate more passengers and provide superior traveling comfort. More
areas in LHB coaches over RCF and ICF coaches were found with much more area on the rooftop to mount
Solar PV. Hence, old coaches of trains are running across the country, LHB coaches will replace them in next
years. So, the focus is on the LHB coaches for this work. Self-generating system (alternators driven by the
moving wheels and excels) is not available in LHB coaches but have HOG (Head on generation) system which
provides the requisite electrical power in the coach. Various factors such as daylight hours, solar isolation climate
conditions like temperature, and humidity in traveling directions, number of halts, speed of the vehicle, quality
of the body of the vehicle, and the technology of PV panels installed atop affect the generation of solar power
from photovoltaic (PV) panels on a running vehicle (trains, buses, etc.) depends on [10]. The maximum global
horizontal irradiation (GHI) of 6.8 kWh/m2 was recorded in April throughout all of India and the minimum of
3.9 kWh/m2 in august as depicted in Fig. 1 [11-12].
Fig. 1. Global irradiation [13]
There are 7349 railway stations in India, and around 13169 trains operating on its tracks, with a 12636 km root
length network. [14-15]. This shows the amount of energy that can be produced during the LHB coaches of
trains staying in Railway yards. The technology would enable significant fuel savings in addition to a decrease
in (CO2) and GHG emissions, which would help to slow global warming [16-17]. The paper [18] examined a
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folding wings-based solar energy harvesting system (SEHS) technology that produces power for rail applications
in railways. Additionally, at load resistance of 5 ohms it has been demonstrated that the prototype generates has
max. output power 10.93 W. According to theoretical study and simulation results, the SEHS built next to the
Beijing-Tangshan intercity railway generates 673994 kWh of electricity annually. The article has established
that solar power can be used to power application on running trains.
A trial solar PV coach on an LHB coach that had been equipped with two flexible 190 wp solar photovoltaic
modules was operated by linking to three well-known Indian Railways high-speed trains between Chennai and
Mysore, and Chennai and Coimbatore [19]. The project focused on the execution of data collection, monitoring,
controlling, and analysis of every system for LHB coaches in Indian railways [20]. This pilot project clears the
all concepts about the roof-top solar harvesting system that can help to satisfy the power necessity of the LHB
coaches of Indian railways.
The manuscript [21] reports on the viability of complementing fuel-based generator sets with electricity
generated by the roof-top solar system. There is a large decrease in (CO2) emission in addition to fuel
conservation. This research has demonstrated that the area available on the roof-top of coaches is more than the
required area for generate electricity through solar PVs. The regular route for daily running rail in Indian railways
served as the basis for all computations.
Fig. 2. Pie chart of Diesel consumption In India and railways [22]
Diesel consumption in Country
• The majority of imported diesel (70 percent) is used in the transportation industry.
• With a share of 22%, the transportation sector has the biggest usage of diesel. Private cars and UVs made
up 13.15 percent of this total, followed by commercial cars and UVs at 8.94 percent, three-wheelers at
6.39%, trucks (HCV/LCV) at 28.25 percent, buses at 9.55%, and railroads at 3.24%.
• Another significant consumer, accounting for 13% of overall consumption, is the agricultural sector. The
consumption in agriculture is as follows: Pump sets (2.9%), tractors (7.4%), and agricultural equipment
(2.7%).
• Other segments consume 17% more diesel than they do. Mobile towers make up 1.54% of this.
The growth of substantial markets of solar power in Asia, as well as in the USA, is showing that the industry is
no longer only focused in Europe. Not at all with 147 GW of net fitted capacity, Asif-pacific became the greatest
solar energy region in the world by overtaking of Europe history in 2016. Asia-Pacific controlled 70% of the
market for new installations in 2018. Germany lost its title as the nation with the most installed capacity to China
in 2015. Chinese PV system installations decreased in 2018 from 52.8 GW to 44.4 GW. The nation had an
astounding 175 GW of installed capacity as of the end of 2018. Fig. 3 displays the total installed solar PV
capacity for various nations.
Industry
31%
Electricity
29%
Transport
22%
Domestic
12%
Others
6%
Diesel consumption in india
Industry
Electricity
Transport
Domestic
Others
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Fig. 3. Total PV Cumulative Installed Capacity by Country
India has emerged as a major force on the global PV scene in recent years. India installed 0.6 GW in 2014, a
meagre amount. It is expected that India’s installed capacity will rise from 27.3 GW in 2018 to116 GW in 2023,
or an average annual installation rate of roughly 18 GW [23]. Considerable markets for solar power should
expand to emerge in Egypt, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Taiwan, Ukraine from now until 2023. These nations
currently have a relatively low installed capacity.
The manuscript aims on the uses of renewable energy sources like solar panels used at place of Diesel in railways.
So that greenhouse effects, carbon emissions, and pollution can be reduced. This research is organized to first
discuss the problem followed by a pollution report due to heavy diesel consumption and carbon emission, and
work mentioned in research era. eventually after defining the solution in term of solar PV and HOG system. In
first section calculate the solar irradiation, MPPT, and total rooftop area. Consecutive section calculates total
solar power generation by panels, and describes the difference between HOG and EOG.
Solar PV unit
A solar PV module can be looked at as a giant solar cell with more voltage & current output compared to one
solar cell. Two or more solar cells are connected to designed the solar PV module.
Efficiency of a solar cell determines how much power it can produce. The power produced per unit area is
typically in the range of 10 (mW/cm2) which corresponds to 10% to 25% cell efficiency [24].
A PV unit's power generation is calculated as:
(1)
,= .. (2)
where,
= Derating factor
= Rated capacity of PV array
= Actual solar irradiance incident on the solar array (kWh/m2)
= Conversion efficiency of PV unit
= Area of PV panel (m2)
= Global solar irradiance
The discrepancy between a PV array's rated performance and its actual performance because of dust, temperature
variations, shade, snow cover, ageing, and wire losses is referred to as a derating factor, etc.
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The PV module’s efficiency ( depends on the properties of PV cell, the modified efficiency of inverter
(), the module factor (), and the number of connected PV cells (). It is given as:
(3)
Fig. 4. Average Temperature of the year
The efficiency of PV cells is influenced by reference efficiency (), efficiency coefficient as a function of
temperature (), cell temperature (), and reference cell temperature ().
Hence, PV cell efficiency () is estimated as
(4)
Global solar irradiance, ambient temperature (Tamb), and nominal operating temperature (Tnoc) of PV cell
affects cell temperature, and is estimated as:
(5)
In Fig. 4 The last year before 2021 saw an average annual temperature of about 27.4o C, up from the year after
1990's average of about 26.9o C. Consequently, it has only marginally risen during the previous 32 years, by
roughly 0.6o C. Only the selected 4 Indian weather stations are affected by this trend.
Solar irradiance spectrum
These distributions of energy, give a single common reference as a function of wavelength for the evaluation of
spectrally selective PV material in terms of the performance assessed under diver’s spectrum distributions of
light from various natural and artificial sources.
Fig. 5. Spectrum of Solar Radiation (Earth) [25-28]
A portion of the solar spectrum that solar cells can efficiently absorb and is necessary for solar panels.
Wavelength in the solar spectrum span from 100 nm to 1 mm., but most of the irradiance occurs between 250
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nm and 2500 nm (Fig. 5), with the maximum occurring in the visible region of light (400–700 nm) for air mass
(AM) 0, indicating that the cells should attempt to absorb as much of the solar spectrum’s visible spectrum as
they can.
MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking)
The load connected to the module affects the power delivered by PV modules. I-V characteristics of the
considered components along with the associated energy outage are displayed in Fig. 6. In a short circuit
condition (V=0), The module delivers the largest amount of current is 5.1 Amp. Increasing the load’s voltage to
17.3 V, the load is now receiving 84 W more energy. More than this threshold, even when the increasing of
voltage, the power output declines because the current is drastically reduced.
Hence, Maximum Power Point refers to the qualities of the power that the module delivers that correlate to its
maximum power.
Fig. 6. I-V characteristics and corresponding power are drawn from the Photo Voltaic Module
PV modules must operate at their highest energy point when the photo voltaic cells and load are combined to
eliminate the highest power from the modules. The intersection point on the I-V graph of a source to a load is
called its operating point.
Details of Train
Concerning daylight hours, the year’s longest day is 13 hours 49 minutes while the shortest is 10 hours 10
minutes. The shortest day is 3 hours 38 minutes shorter than the longest one. A median of 2856 hrs of daylight
per year (out of a potential 4383), or 7:49 per day [29]. So, it is observed that the train is running to Sunshine for
8 hours during a single trip. This is a good opportunity to utilize the roof-top area to generate energy through
solar PV. This is beneficial over, using an EOG (End on generation) system with fossil fuel or diesel. Hence,
this study can extract more power from solar instead of diesel generation. The Route of the considered train is
shown in Fig. 7, and its load description with fuel consumption details and discussed in Table 1.
Fig. 7. Route Map of the Train Considered in Study
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Table 1. Details of the LHB train considered.
Name of the Train
Kota Nizamuddin (NZM)
Jan Shatabdi EXP. (12059-12060)
Rake Composition (22 coaches)
No. of A/C coaches
No. of Non-A/C coaches
No. of EOG
No. Extra Parcel coach
3
18
2
1
Distance from source to destination and vice-versa
458+458 = 916 km
Duration of 1 Trip
12 hours 45 min
The total sunshine period during the trip
8 hours
Electrical load
Total electrical load per A/c coach
Total electrical load of all A/c coaches
Total electrical load per Non-A/C coach
Total electrical load of Non-A/C coaches
Net electrical load of the rake
27 kWh
27 x 3(no. of ac coach) = 81 kWh
4.7 kWh
4.7 x 19(no. of non ac coach) = 89.3
kWh
81 + 89.3 = 170.3 kWh
Details of the fuel used for generator cars
Type of fuel used
Price per lit of fuel [30]
Hi-Speed Diesel (HSD)
INR. 90.70 / lit.
Fuel consumption by generator cars for 1 trip
Total capacity of the tank
By the net electrical load of the rake
3000 lit.
778.6 lit.
Total cost on fuel for supplying for electrical load during the trip
(12 hours 45 min.)
778.6 x 90.70 = 70619 INR
The route map of the train is given in Fig. 7 which is running between the Kota and Nizamuddin stations of
Indian railways. More details for the route and train are presented in Table 1.
Rooftop area calculation of LHB Coach for Solar PV Mounting
The typical ICF coaches are 1.7 meters shorter than the LHB coaches., which is useful to mount more solar PV
modules on the roof-top. The roof-top layout and calculation of the LHB coach along with the area available for
placing the solar PV modules are shown in Fig. 8, 9, and Table 2 respectively.
Fig. 8. Layout LHB Coach.
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Fig. 9. Layout of the roof-top of an LHB coach
Table 2. Roof-top area available for the mountain of solar PV modules on a single LHB coach.
Net Rooftop area available on an LHB coach
93.36 m2
The area is engaged by Ac units, lavatory ceilings, water tanks, walkways, and ventilation vents.
31.56 m2
Net available area for mounting solar PV modules
61.792
Solar Power Potential per m2
The panel used for consideration and details are presented in table 3.
Details of Solar (PV) used
Table 3. Features of solar panel considered [31].
Specification
Details
Brand
Loom Solar
Output Power
440-530 W
Required Space
24 ft2
Operating Volatge
24 V
Panel Technology
Mono PERC Bifacial
Additional Features
Cell Conversion Efficiency > 22% (Compliance with IEC standards)
Single Panel Cost of Kw
40,000 INR
Table 4. Power potential of solar PV system on a single LHB coach.
Potential solar energy in a 1 m2 area
224W
Total potential solar energy in the available space on the roof-top of a single
coach
61.79 X 225= 13.84 kW
Net solar power potential observes system efficiency to be 80% and the shaded
region as 15%
11.72
Calculation of Solar Power Generation by Solar PV system
It can be observed from Table 3 & 4 that the solar power potential on the roof-top of one LHB coach is averagely
higher than the total electrical lighting load of the coach. To check the practicability of the setting up of the solar
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power system for catering, the average daily GHI is required to be taken into consideration. Fig. 1 describes the
tendency of daily GHI averaged over different months of the year. It can be measured that GHI is maximum and
minimum during May and January respectively. Table 5 provides the estimate of the energy content that can be
generated from solar PV that is installed on the roof of LHB coaches.
Table 5. Total solar power electrical generation by solar PV system.
From Table 3, the total area available on the roof-top of the rake (22
coaches considered).
61.79 X 22 = 1359.38 m2
Net capacity of the solar PV system that can be mounted on the roof-top of
the whole rake
11.072 X 22 = 243.58 kW
Total No. of solar PV modules used
609
From Fig. 1, the solar PV system’s output when the monthly average daily
GHI is
Maximum (May)
6.8 X 1359 = 9241.2 kWh
Minimum (January)
3.92 X 1359 = 5327.28 kWh
Average daily GHI measured in India (Kota, Rajasthan 2018)
5.32 kwh/m2
Estimate output of the solar PV system for the average routine GHI
measured
5.32 X 1359 = 7229.88 kWh
From Table 1, energy consumed by the net electrical load during sunshine
hours (8 hours) of a trip
170 X 8 = 1360 kWh
The volume of diesel drinks up by the electrical load of the rake during the
sunshine hours (8 hours) of 1 trip
479.12 lit
As observed by Table 5, the net energy generated by solar is more than the required power. The remaining extra
energy will be fed in the overhead lines through Locomotives. It is the same as feeding power at the time of
regenerative braking.
AI-Assisted Solar Tracking for Railway Microgrid in LHB Coaches
AI-assisted solar tracking combines short-term irradiance forecasting and a reinforcement-learned controller to
continuously orient rooftop PV for maximum yield. Sensors (pyranometer, IMU, temperature, wind, camera)
feed a supervised model that predicts irradiance and optimal tilt; an RL/MPC policy then issues safe actuator
setpoints balancing energy gain, actuator wear, and wind safety. The tracker coordinates with MPPT and the
microgrid/HOG manager to prioritize hotel loads, batteries, or overhead feed-in. Field trials compare fixed,
astronomical-tracking, and AI-tracking across varied weather to quantify energy, cost, and CO₂ benefits.
Fig. 10. Block Diagram of AI-assisted Solar Tracking System for Railway Microgrid in LHB Coach.
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Analysis of HOG energy efficiency when irradiation is not available to generate electricity
The efficiency of the working of the HOG scheme is confirmed by various trials of Indian railways. Electric
power required for coaches supplies through the HOG system is used in developing nations. It results in the
utilization of SG (self-generation) and EOG systems being limited. It offers excellent operational economic
benefits. The savings when using the HOG system as opposed to the EOG system is highlighted in Table 6.
Table 6. Table 6. Saving in expenditure by using HOG over EOG.
Scheme
Energy cost
per unit
(INR)
Total
hotel
load
Total run
time without
solar energy
Total units
spend in a
trip of 5 Hour
Total energy
cost in one
trip (INR)
Total annual energy
cost
EOG
25
170
5
850
21,250
21,250 X 365 =77.56
lacs INR
HOG
8
170
5
850
6,800
6800 X 365 = 24.82
lacs INR
Total Saving in year
77.56 – 24.82 = 52.74
lacs INR
HOG System
The train is taking power from the locomotive through hotel load winding during the HOG scheme operation.
Fig. 11. HOG schematic with single hotel load winding in the loco transformer
The OHE (Overhead lines of 25kv) is used to supply power through the collector (pantograph) to the
locomotive’s traction transformer, which is installed with a 945 kVA’s extra winding, which is known as hotel
load winding, at a 1-phase voltage of 750 V, which rise and falls in accordance to the OHE voltage variations
shown in Fig. 10.Now this 750 V 1-phase voltage sent to the converter( Hotel load converter), as shown in Fig.
11, which provides 750 V, 3-phase, 50 Hz power supply as an output for the train’s hotel load.
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Fig. 12. EOG Block Diagram with HOG Supply [32]
Expenditure saving for considered rail route
A total expenditure of 52.74 lacs INR can be recovered yearly by the regular operation of the HOG system
whenever Solar PV does not generate electricity. However, the train plying 8 hours in sunshine period and only
4 hours 45 min without getting solar energy but considered around 5 hours by considering the situation of being
late to reach the destination or considering cloudy weather.
Annual reduction in CO2
The train considered is assumed to make up to 365 trips in the year because it runs daily. The arrangement can
get the benefits mentioned in the next Table 7 along with a large reduction in (CO2) emissions. The carbon
composition of the fuel determines how much (CO2) is created after it has burned. When a fuel is burned, its
carbon (C) and hydrogen (H) contents primarily govern how much energy is released. When oxygen (O) and
carbon (C) mix during combustion, heat is created. Diesel weighs 835 grams per liter and contains 86.2% carbon.
This carbon requires 1920 grams of oxygen to burn, producing (CO2). 720+1920 = 2640 grams (2.64kg) of
carbon-ignited diesel is the result.[33]
Table 7. Annual reduction in CO2.
The maximum number of trips in a year
365
The volume of diesel that can be annually consumed by the EOG system of
train
365 X 778.6 = 2,84,189 lit.
Annual reduction in the CO2 emitted by a train, taking the amount of CO2
emitted per liter of diesel burnt as 2.64 kg and factor of combustion as 0.99
2,84,189 X 2.64 = 755942.74
kg (756 tons)
Impact of this scheme
The train considered requires 170 kWh power but considering some variation time so 200 kW PV system will
be installed on the rooftop of a train rake. The cost per kW solar PV installation is around 40,000 INR/kW. The
total cost of mounting solar PV will be returned in 5 months by this scheme.
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Table 8. Savings and Return of Investment (ROI) of the considered system.
The total cost of mounting Solar PV on the Roof-
top of a train
40,000 X 200 = 80,00,000 INR
Total annual cost on diesel in EOG scheme
2,84,189 X 90.70 = 2,57,75,942 INR
Saving of diesel
Daily saving by using Solar power
Daily saving by using the HOG scheme
Total savings from both per day
34,496 INR
21,560 INR
56,056 INR
Return on investment (ROI)
80lacks INR/56,056 = 143 days (Around 5 Months)
Hardware Setup
The hardware setup implements of converter and WaveCT WCU300 with the MATLAB Simulink installed
system. The WaveCT WCU300 is a versatile solar charge controller designed to efficiently manage the power
flow from solar panels to batteries. It is a suitable choice for various applications, including rooftop solar systems
on Indian Railways coaches.
Fig. 13. Hardware Setup
The WaveCT WCU300 is a promising solar charge controller for Indian Railways coaches, offering efficient
power management and various protection features. By implementing solar power systems on coaches, Indian
Railways can contribute to a more sustainable and environmentally friendly transportation sector.
CONCLUSION
This article is fundamentally accessing the solar PV uses in the transportation system of railways:
• Net available area for mounting solar PV modules on a single LHB coach is 61.79 (m2) hence total
available area on the rooftop of the whole rake is 1359 (m2) (considered 22 coaches). According to the
above calculation in Table 5, 609 solar PV modules are used to generate 243.2 kW power for the whole
rake.
• It has been calculated that the volume of diesel conserved per year per train is around 2,84,189 lit. causing
a reduction of 755 tons of (CO2) being emitted into the atmosphere.
• The total cost of installing solar PV on the rooftop of the train is 80,00,000 INR. By using this
arrangement 56056 INR of diesel got saved.
• The ROI of the system installed is 143 days i.e., 4 months 23 days.
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• The benefit of this research by observing calculation and measurement is saving money, reducing (CO2)
emissions, reducing global warming, and can replacement of 2 EOG coaches with passenger coaches.
So, the capacity of transportation is also increased.
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AI-Assisted Solar Tracking For Lhb Coach Microgrids
AI-assisted solar tracking combines short-term irradiance forecasting and a reinforcement-learned controller to
continuously orient rooftop PV for maximum yield. Sensors (pyranometer, IMU, temperature, wind, camera)
feed a supervised model that predicts irradiance and optimal tilt; an RL/MPC policy then issues safe actuator
setpoints balancing energy gain, actuator wear, and wind safety. The tracker coordinates with MPPT and the
microgrid/HOG manager to prioritize hotel loads, batteries, or overhead feed-in. Field trials compare fixed,
astronomical-tracking, and AI-tracking across varied weather to quantify energy, cost, and CO₂ benefits.
Figure: Block Diagram of AI-assisted Solar Tracking System for Railway Microgrid in LHB Coach.
