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Teacher Professional Effectiveness in Ghana: A Comparative Analysis of
Distance and Regular Training Modalities Through the Lens of Education
Office Supervisors
Isaac Mepenedo
Municipal Education Office, KEEA. Box EL 13, Elmina, Ghana
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2025.1210000152
Received: 10 October 2025; Accepted: 20 October 2025; Published: 12 November 2025
ABSTRACT
In light of ongoing teacher shortages and varying levels of teaching quality, Distance Education (DE) has
become a vital approach for enhancing teachers' skills. However, there's still a dearth of comparative evidence
regarding its effectiveness compared to the Regular Mode (RM). This qualitative single case study delved into
the perspectives of School Improvement Support Officers (SISOs) on teacher professional effectiveness (TPE)
in Akonoba Municipality, Ghana. The research involved semi-structured interviews and focus group
discussions with eight carefully chosen participants. Through thematic analysis, it became clear that TPE is
seen as a complex concept that includes professional ethics, comprehensive learner support, and academic
progress, all influenced by the quality of training, individual initiative, and systemic backing. While teachers
trained through RM were generally viewed as better equipped, their effectiveness was found to depend more
on broader institutional and contextual factors rather than just the mode of training. The study suggests that DE
programmes could be improved by offering more practicum opportunities, implementing stricter admission
standards, refining the curriculum, and enhancing teacher support systems through effective supervision and
in-service trainings, while also working to eliminate predispositions against DE graduates. Although the study
was limited to a particular Education Municipality and a selected group of educational officers regarding their
perceptions of teacher professional effectiveness, it nonetheless provides a useful foundation for future
research with wider scope and more rigorous research procedures. Again, by positioning SISOs as key
evaluators of teaching competence, this research adds to the ongoing discussions about fair teacher preparation
and advocates for comprehensive reforms to improve the quality of education in Ghana and beyond.
Keywords: Teacher professional effectiveness, mode of teacher education, education office supervisors,
instructional supervision, teacher support.
INTRODUCTION
Generally, the quality of education in any nation is intimately linked to the professional effectiveness of its
teachers. Teacher Professional Effectiveness (TPE) defined as the integrated mastery of subject knowledge,
pedagogical skills, classroom management, reflective practice, and the capacity to foster student learning and
holistic development (Stronge, 2018), stands as a cornerstone of educational quality and student achievement
across global contexts. The debate surrounding the impact of training modalities, specifically distance and
regular (face-to-face) training on teacher effectiveness has gained increasing attention in both developing and
developed educational systems. Globally, teacher education programmes have diversified in response to
expanding access, technological innovations, and the need for flexible learning, particularly in resource-
constrained contexts (Bozkurt et al., 2020).
Distance learning, once considered secondary to traditional models, is now mainstream and is widely
employed to bridge teacher shortages and upgrade qualifications, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa and parts of
Asia (Tadesse & Muluye, 2020). A growing body of literature explores how teacher preparation modes
influence pedagogical competence, classroom management, content delivery, and student engagement. For
example, Adnan and Anwar (2020) reported that while distance learning offers flexibility and access, it may
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compromise hands-on pedagogical experience and interaction which are core elements crucial for shaping
effective teaching practices. Conversely, regular mode training typically offers more structured, in-person
mentorship and practicum opportunities, which are linked to improved classroom efficacy (Trust & Whalen,
2020).
In Ghana, where achieving Sustainable Development Goal 4 (quality education) remains a national priority,
debates about the efficacy of different teacher training pathways have intensified. Specifically, stakeholders
question whether the rapidly expanding Distance Mode training (blended/online formats enabling in-service
upgrades) produces teachers as professionally effective as those from traditional Regular Mode programmes
(full-time, face-to-face instruction in Colleges of Education/Universities) (Koi-Akrofi, et al., 2020; Ministry of
Education, Ghana [MoE], 2018; Salifu, et al., 2023). Further, Ghana’s education system contends with
persistent challenges; acute teacher shortages in rural and deprived areas, uneven distribution of qualified
personnel, and variable teaching quality (World Bank, 2021).
Despite the proliferation of distance programmes with its intent to unravel the challenges that confront Ghana’s
education system, empirical research comparing their outcomes to regular training within Ghana is scarce and
often sidesteps professional effectiveness. Existing studies primarily focus on; learner satisfaction and
technological feasibility and programme access and completion rates (Adnan, & Anwar, 2020; Garlinska, et
al., 2023). Others also looked at general teacher effectiveness factors without disaggregation by training mode
(Goe, 2007; Yansyah, 2022). Crucially, the perspective of Education Office Supervisors (EOS) with particular
reference to School Improvement Support Officers (SISOs) who directly observe, mentor, and appraise
teachers remains a significant blind spot. These professionals according to Ghana Education Service, (2002),
Nkonkonya, et al., (2022) and Osei, et al, (2020) possess unparalleled insights into the practical manifestations
of effectiveness regarding how teacher professionalism translates into real time efficacy. Their vantage point
offers a grounded, practice-oriented evaluation which appear not to be considered in most comparative studies.
This constitutes a critical research gap, as EOS perspectives are vital for understanding the real-world impact
of training pathways on teaching quality and, ultimately, student learning.
Study Objectives
This study aims to conduct a comparative analysis of the perceived professional effectiveness of teachers
trained via Distance versus Regular modes in Ghana, primarily through the experiential lens of EOS. Teacher
effectiveness is broadly conceptualized as a multidimensional construct comprising interrelated components
such as pedagogical expertise, deep content knowledge, effective classroom management, the ability to foster
meaningful student engagement, and sustained reflective practice (Barni et al., 2020; Rezaul Karim et al.,
2021). Within this framework, the present study argues that the foundational pedagogical competencies
acquired during initial teacher preparation are critical determinants of long-term instructional efficacy, as they
form the basis upon which professional growth and adaptive teaching practices are built.
Research Questions
The study was guided by two central research questions:
1. How do Education Office Supervisors conceptualize and perceive teacher professional effectiveness
within the Ghanaian basic education context?
2. In what specific dimensions, do Education Office Supervisors perceive differences in professional
effectiveness between teachers trained via distance mode and regular mode?
Study Focus Area and limitations
The study focuses on EOS in a selected education Municipality in Central Region of Ghana. It targets teachers
who completed initial training (Certificate 'A', Diploma in Basic Education, B.Ed.) via accredited Distance or
Regular programmes and are teaching in public basic schools. The core construct is perceived TPE by EOS,
distinct from direct student achievement measures. While acknowledging the influence of numerous factors
(e.g., school leadership, resources, socio-economic context), the study specifically isolates the perceived
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contribution of initial training mode as evaluated by the supervisors. Transferability and applicability are
constrained by the sampled district and EOS, and findings represent one perspective; future research should
triangulate with teacher self-assessments and student outcomes.
By harnessing the critical, practice-informed perspectives of Education Office Supervisors, this study
illuminates the complex interplay between training modality and professional effectiveness within Ghana’s
unique educational ecosystem. Its findings promise to inform more nuanced, evidence-driven policies and
practices in teacher preparation and development, contributing significantly to educational advancement and
the realization of equitable learning opportunities for all.
Theoretical Underpinnings of the Study
This study is grounded in two key theoretical frameworks; constructivist learning theory and andragogy, which
together provide a robust lens for examining the comparative efficacy of regular and distance teacher education
modalities. Constructivist learning theory, as articulated by Vygotsky (1978) and Bruner (1996), emphasizes
the socially mediated and context-bound nature of knowledge acquisition. Learning, in the view of
constructivist, occurs most effectively when individuals engage in collaborative interactions, scaffolded
experiences, and authentic problem-solving within a community of practice. Regular teacher education
programmes often align closely with this paradigm, as they typically offer face-to-face engagement, peer
collaboration, mentorship, and opportunities for situated learning; which support the development of complex
pedagogical competencies.
Complementing this perspective is the theory of andragogy, proposed by Knowles (1980), which centers on the
principles of adult learning. Andragogy posits that adult learners are self-directed, internally motivated, and
benefit most from learning experiences that are relevant, problem-centered, and build on their prior knowledge
and experiences. Distance education, in many respects, aligns with this model by offering flexibility,
autonomy, and access to a wide range of resources that can be tailored to individual learning needs.
Together, constructivism and andragogy underscore the importance of both social interaction and self-directed
learning respectively in teacher preparation. Their integration in this research provides a conceptual foundation
for analyzing how each training modality supports or constrains the development of professional competencies
necessary for effective teaching.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Teacher Professionalism
Teacher professionalism is increasingly recognized as vital to educational quality, shaping student outcomes,
teacher identity, and the school environment. It is broadly defined as a blend of specialized knowledge, ethical
conduct, lifelong learning, and autonomy within institutional contexts. In modern education, professionalism
also includes collaboration, leadership, and adaptability (Day (2017). Key components such as continuous
professional development (CPD) and the integration of technology into teaching are emphasized (Califf &
Brooks, 2020; Wu, et al., 2022). Accordingly, Stavermann (2025) stressed that teachers are expected to
regularly update their skills to meet evolving curriculum and student needs. Autonomy in curricular and policy
decisions, grounded in ethical responsibility, is seen as essential to professional practice (Transformative
Professionalism Collective, 2024).
In contexts characterised by resource limitations and systemic challenges, such as in many parts of Africa and
Asia, professionalism is also linked to resilience and innovation in teaching practice. The contemporary
literature conceptualizes teacher professionalism as a multifaceted construct that encompasses ethical
standards, continuous learning, reflective practice, professional autonomy, and adaptability to new challenges
(Grenier, 2025). These attributes collectively contribute to the effectiveness, credibility, and social value of the
teaching profession. This suggest that the 21st century teacher is expected to be characterized by
innovativeness in these multi-dimensional professionalism construct in order to be effective and valuable.
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Instructional Supervision and Teacher Support
Instructional supervision and teacher support play a critical role in advancing teaching quality and improving
student learning outcomes. Contemporary supervision practices have shifted from traditional inspection-
focused models toward more collaborative and developmental frameworks rooted in instructional leadership
(Aidah, et al., 2024). These approaches prioritize teacher growth through feedback, mentoring, and the
establishment of professional learning communities. As accountability pressures increase in schools, the need
for supervision that supports rather than merely evaluating teachers has become increasingly vital.
According to Aidah et al. (2024) and Mwesige and Nabwami, (2020), modern instructional supervision
emphasizes continuous professional improvement through reflective dialogue and shared responsibility where
developmental supervision emphasized to build trust between supervisors and teachers, supportive supervision
is observed to improve teacher morale, planning, and classroom management, especially when delivered
formatively and in a non-punitive manner. Complementary teacher support mechanisms such as coaching,
mentoring, and professional learning communities have also proven effective (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017).
In the view of Kraft and Papay (2020), sustained instructional coaching enhances student outcomes while
mentorship helps early-career teachers develop professional identity and classroom competence.
In Ghana and similar contexts, instructional supervision is often hindered by logistical and resource challenges.
However, adaptive strategies such as blending formal oversight with informal mentoring have emerged
(Mepenedo & Ansah, 2023). Technology further expands supervision possibilities through virtual coaching and
digital lesson reviews, though its effectiveness relies on adequate training and institutional support (Trust et al.,
2022). School leadership is another critical factor. Thus, school heads who engage directly in instructional
leadership foster school cultures where supervision and teacher development can thrive (Hallinger & Wang,
2021). Ultimately, effective instructional supervision combined with ongoing support promotes teacher growth
and effectiveness leading to better educational outcomes.
Teacher Effectiveness
Teacher effectiveness is a pivotal concern in educational research and policymaking, given its substantial
influence on student learning and educational quality. It is widely recognized as a multifaceted concept that
includes pedagogical expertise, content knowledge, classroom management, student engagement, and
reflective practice (Rezaull Karim, et al., 2021; Barni, et al., 2019). The growing focus on accountability and
performance-based assessment has intensified interest in defining and measuring teacher effectiveness. Goe
(2007) and Yansyah (2022) viewed teacher effectiveness through a value-added lens, emphasizing
contributions to student achievement gains. This perspective has shaped reforms but has faced criticism for
neglecting broader educational roles, such as fostering students’ emotional and social development. Alternative
frameworks stress inclusive teaching, strong teacher-student relationships, and responsiveness to diverse
learners. Supporting a more holistic evaluation, Shawn, et al., (2022) advocates for diverse assessment tools,
including teacher portfolios, peer reviews, and self-assessment, to supplement traditional methods like
classroom observation and student ratings.
Teacher effectiveness is influenced by a range of factors that enhance instructional quality and promote student
achievement. A key determinant is comprehensive pre-service training that blends theoretical foundations with
practical classroom experience, equipping teachers to navigate the complexities of modern education (Darling-
Hammond et al., 2020). Equally important is continuous professional development (CPD) and engagement in
professional learning communities, which help teachers adopt innovative pedagogical strategies and strengthen
content knowledge in response to changing curricular demands (Dheeraj & Kumari, 2024). In today’s rapidly
advancing digital age, technology has emerged as a vital enabler of teacher effectiveness (Bozkurt et al., 2020).
This highlights the integration of technological innovations into teacher training and practice as an essential
mechanism for teacher professional effectiveness.
It could therefore be inferred that teacher effectiveness is a complex and evolving construct shaped by personal
attributes, institutional support, and broader socio-economic factors. Its enhancement requires integrated
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efforts in teacher education, professional development, inclusive assessment, leadership support, and equitable
access to resources.
Teacher Education, Training and Preparation
Teacher education and teacher training are often used interchangeably to mean teacher preparation. Scholars
such as Mulenga (2020), Banja and Mulenga (2019), and Muzata and Ndonyo (2019), however, argued that
teacher education offers a more holistic and comprehensive framework. It integrates educational theory,
subject-matter knowledge, and pedagogical content knowledge, thereby equipping teachers with the
competencies needed for effective classroom instruction and professional growth. As societal needs,
technological advancements, and global educational expectations evolve, teacher education has become central
to educational reform. Mulenga noted that effective programmes combine a strong theoretical foundation with
practical clinical experience, fostering "adaptive expertise" that enables teachers to function effectively across
diverse instructional contexts. Additionally, ongoing professional development, such as coaching and
professional learning communities (PLCs), enhances teaching quality when aligned with initial training and
supported by school leadership (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020).
The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated the adoption of digital teacher education, revealing both opportunities
and challenges. Trust et al. (2022) found that well-designed online and blended models can be as effective as
traditional formats, though digital inequities, especially in resource-constrained settings, hinder their
widespread impact. Bakia et al. (2023) stressed the importance of embedding digital pedagogical skills in both
pre-service and in-service training to prepare teachers for technology-rich classrooms. Furthermore, induction
and mentorship play a crucial role in bridging the gap between training and practice. Structured induction helps
reduce early career attrition, while mentorship that is grounded in local context proves more effective than
externally imposed models (Irshad, et al., 2025; Kraft & Papay, 2020). Together, these dimensions underscore
the need for teacher education systems that are adaptable, context-sensitive, and technologically inclusive.
A Comparative Analysis of Distance and Regular Education
The global shift in education, particularly following the COVID-19 pandemic, has intensified focus on the
comparative effectiveness of distance education and regular (in-person) education. While both modalities offer
unique advantages, their effectiveness depends heavily on context-specific factors such as instructional design,
learner preparedness, institutional support, and infrastructure. On this premise, Bao (2020) noted that a well-
implemented online learning can be equally or more effective than face-to-face instruction, especially when
enriched with interactive content, feedback, since multimedia distance learning also fosters autonomy and
digital literacy. However, its success is inconsistent, particularly in low-resource settings where limited internet
access and device availability hinder engagement and achievement (Adarkwah, 2021; Dhawan, 2020).
Teacher education in Ghana has seen major reforms aimed at improving quality and expanding access through
both regular (face-to-face) and distance education modes. These approaches support teacher qualification and
ongoing development but differ in delivery and learner experience. Reforms such as the 2004 Teacher
Education Policy and the 2018 Education Act introduced standardized curricula and professional benchmarks,
implemented through institutions like the University of Cape Coast and the University of Education, Winneba
(MoE, 2018; T-TEL, 2019). Distance education has been instrumental in upgrading the qualifications of in-
service teachers, especially in underserved regions, due to its flexibility (Salifu, et al., 2023). However,
challenges such as poor internet connectivity, limited infrastructure, and weak tutor support continue to affect
the effectiveness of this mode (Attah-Mensah et al., 2016; Cobbold, 2015; Owusu-Ansah et al., 2021).
Perceptions of professional competence still tend to favour graduates of regular programs, though this is
gradually changing as distance programmes gain accreditation and improve in structure. Mepenedo and Ansah
(2023) found that frontline supervisors generally perceive teachers trained through the regular mode of
education as more suitable for classroom deployment and instructional assignments compared to their
counterparts trained via the distance mode. To ensure parity, stakeholders recommend blended delivery
(Donitsa-Schmidt & Ramot, 2020; Fojtík, 2018, Salonen et al., 2021) while strengthening distance learning
through improved design and tutor interaction. The National Teaching Council (NTC, 2020) calls for
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alignment of both training modes with national teacher standards and licensing requirements, emphasizing that
sustained investment is necessary to ensure equity and quality across both systems.
Equity challenges are pronounced in distance education. As UNESCO (2021) highlights, marginalized and
rural students face major barriers due to infrastructure gaps. Regular education, by contrast, offers more
equitable access to structured environments and collaborative learning. In response, hybrid models are gaining
momentum. Hodges et al. (2020) distinguished “emergency remote teaching” from structured online learning,
while Bozkurt and Sharma (2022) advocated for blended learning as a long-term, inclusive solution.
Student satisfaction differs by context. While distance learning provides flexibility and autonomy, it can lead to
isolation (Alqurashi, 2019). Regular education supports engagement and social connection but lacks flexibility.
In teacher education, digital tools have shown promise when paired with mentoring and reflective activities.
Trust et al. (2022) asserted that while online platforms can effectively deliver training, in-person practicums
remain crucial for building classroom management and interpersonal skills. This underscores the need for
integrated and context-responsive delivery models in modern teacher preparation.
Further Comparison of Distance and Regular Teacher Education in Ghana
Admission Criteria
Admission requirements for teacher education in Ghana differ between the distance and regular modes due to
their distinct target groups and training structures. The distance education mode emphasizes flexibility by
recognizing prior credentials such as Diplomas, HNDs, or Bachelor’s degrees, to in-service teachers upgrading
their qualifications (University of Education, Winneba [UEW], 2025; University of Cape Coast, College of
Distance Education [UCC–CODE], 2024). Some distance programmes further require programme-specific
basics, such as subject-relevant diplomas for specialized Bachelor of Education routes (UEW). Thus, the
standard entry requirement for tertiary education in Ghana is a minimum of passes in six subjects, with grades
not lower than A1- C6. However, distance education institutions are often more flexible, accepting grades up to
D7 for admission.
Conversely, the regular (on-campus) mode relies on standardized pre-tertiary entry requirements, admitting
school-leavers who have achieved credit passes in WASSCE/SSSCE core subjects (English Language, Core
Mathematics, and relevant electives) through centralized and competitive admissions (Colleges of Education
Admissions Procedure, 2025; University of Cape Coast, 2024). Thus, while the distance mode prioritizes
accessibility and professional upgrading for in-service educators, the regular mode targets academically
qualified school-leavers for full-time pre-service teacher training.
Curriculum and Programme Characteristics
Distance teacher education in Ghana is characterized by flexible, blended, and modular delivery systems that
combine printed materials, online platforms, tutorial sessions, and periodic face-to-face workshops to
accommodate part-time progression (University of Education, Winneba [UEW], 2025; University of Cape
Coast, College of Distance Education [UCC–CODE], 2024). These programmes allow flexible pacing with
extended completion periods, part-time options, and multiple intake cycles designed for in-service teachers
(UEW). Assessment typically includes assignments, quizzes, and examinations, with school-based practicums
conducted in students’ own schools or designated centres under local supervision (UEW, 2025). To support
decentralized learners, distance programmes emphasize learner support through tutor centres, printed
materials, and online and in-person tutorials (UCC–CODE & UEW).
Regular teacher education programmes are, however, designed around full-time, face-to-face instruction with
continuous campus engagement, including daily lectures, access to learning facilities, and strong peer
interaction that enhances professional socialization (Colleges of Education Admissions Procedure, 2025).
According to Colleges of Education Admissions Procedure, teaching practice endeavors in the regular mode
are more concerted and closely supervised, with university-assigned mentors and assessors (Colleges of
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Education Admissions Procedure). Additionally, regular programmes offer more intensive pedagogical
coursework, synchronous sessions, and continuous onsite mentoring, distinguishing them from the flexible and
self-directed nature of distance education.
It is worthy of noticing that both pathways of teacher education are bounded by a common national regulation.
That is to indicate that regardless of the training modality, graduates of accredited professional teacher
education programmes must satisfy National Teaching Council (NTC) requirements and be eligible to register
for and complete the Ghana Teacher Licensure Examination (GTLE) to obtain professional recognition as
teachers. This regulatory requirement underscores a common professional standard across teacher education
modalities, (National Teaching Council, 2025).
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
This study employed a qualitative single-case design to conduct an in-depth exploration of Education Office
Supervisors’ (EOS) insights regarding the professional effectiveness of distance-trained versus regular-trained
teachers within Ghana’s basic education system. The case was contextually bounded to a purposively selected
Municipality in Ghana’s Central Region, chosen for its representative socio-educational dynamics and
implementation of national teacher training reforms. Eight (8) School Improvement Support Officers (SISOs)
with at least 3 years of supervisory experience were engaged through purposive sampling targeting participants
who possessed the necessary experiential depth (Nyimbili & Nyimbili, 2024) to evaluate teachers’ pedagogical
competence, classroom management, and adaptive practice. This design facilitated a practice-oriented
examination of how training modalities translate into observable professional effectiveness, centering the
understudied perspectives of EOS as critical evaluators of teacher performance.
Data Collection
Data collection involved triangulation through two primary methods as detailed in appendices A and B
respectively: (1) semi-structured individual interviews using an open-ended guide to probe SISOs’
conceptualization of Teacher Professional Effectiveness (TPE) dimensions and comparative analysis of
training modes, and (2) Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) to elicit collective insights on systemic teacher
professional effective and policy recommendations.
Data Analysis
Guided by Braun and Clarke’s (2006) thematic analysis framework, data from interviews and focus group
discussions were transcribed verbatim, openly coded, and iteratively refined into themes aligned with the
research objectives and questions. Initial coding produced nine themes, which, through repeated comparison
and synthesis, were consolidated into three overarching constructs (Appendix C) representing Education Office
Supervisors’ conceptualizations of teacher professional effectiveness. Methodological rigor was ensured
through member checking, while ethical integrity was maintained via written consent from the Ghana
Education Service (GES) and strict participant anonymization.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The study sought to address two research questions:
1. How do Education Office Supervisors conceptualize and perceive teacher professional effectiveness
within the Ghanaian basic education context?
2. In what specific dimensions, do Education Office Supervisors perceive the professional effectiveness
between teachers trained via Distance Mode and Regular Mode?
Research Question 1: Education office supervisors’ conceptualisation of effective teacher professionalism
School Improvement Support Officers as EOS conceptualized effective professional teacher as one who
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consistently upholds the required professional ethics and standards while addressing both the individual and
collective emotional, psychological, and learning needs of pupils. Such a teacher actively fosters educational
and academic improvement, ultimately contributing to the holistic transformation of learners’ lives. The
collective views of the Education Officers on teacher professional effectiveness resonate with Goe (2007),
Grenier (2025), Shawn et al., (2022) and Yansyah’s (2022) submissions. According to them, teacher
professional effectiveness is a multifaceted construct that extends beyond academic outcomes to include ethics,
continuous learning, and adaptability. While earlier definitions emphasized student achievement, critics argue
that this neglects teachers’ wider roles in supporting students’ social and emotional development hence recent
approaches that advocate for inclusive practices, strong teacher-student relationships, and diverse evaluation
methods.
Research Question 2:Specific dimensions by which Education Office Supervisors perceive the professional
effectiveness between teachers trained via Distance and Regular Modalities.
An analysis of data obtained from Education Office Supervisors (EOS), specifically School Improvement
Support Officers (SISOs) in Akonoba Municipality, revealed distinct perspectives on the professional
effectiveness of teachers trained through Distance Education (DE) compared to those prepared via the Regular
Mode (RM). While the supervisors generally perceived regular mode trained teachers as being better prepared
for professional practice, they emphasized that teacher effectiveness should not be judged solely on the basis of
the mode of training. Instead, they underscored the importance of a combination of critical factors that
collectively enhance professional competence. From their accounts, three core constructs emerged as central to
the EOSs’ conceptualization of teacher professional effectiveness (TPE). These constructs as presented in
figure 1 as a matrix depicting EOS perspective where RM training is initially favoured, but individual agency
and systemic support are recognized as critical mediating factors for teachers' professional effectiveness.
Figure 1: Matrix display of Education Office Supervisors’ perception on teachers’ professional effectiveness.
Mode of Teacher Training: The SISOs linked TPE to the type and quality of training received.
Training Quality & Content: Distance Education was perceived as having "less practical component" and being
"not as intensive" as Regular Mode programmes. Supervisors directly correlated this perceived deficit with
lower effectiveness, aligning with findings by Adnan and Anwar (2020) who reported that DE is likely to
compromise hands-on pedagogical experience and interaction which are essential for preparation and ensuring
effective teaching practices.
Duration: The shorter duration of DE programmes was cited as a limitation: "Distance education teachers have
short time so, some topics are not treated," implying less comprehensive preparation. This resonates with the
findings of Darling-Hammond et al., (2020) who suggested that comprehensive pre-service training is a pre-
requisite for effective professionalism.
Entry Requirements: Lower admission standards for DE programmes were perceived to impact the quality of
entrants and, consequently, the graduates produced. One SISO stated, "Most distance education teachers are
those who did not do well in their 'O' level or WASSCE." This perspective reflects the Ghana’s National
Teaching Council’s observation, which calls for alignment of both training modes, emphasizing the urgent
need for sustained efforts to ensure equity and quality across both systems (NTC, 2020).
Teacher Professional
Effectiveness
Mode Of Teacher Training
Individual’s Potentials And
Attitudes
Teacher Support Systems
Teacher professional effectiveness is
determined by the kind of training
received.
Individual potential differences
determine how effective a
professional teacher will be.
Appropriate instructional
supervision is key in making
teachers effective.
Duration of teacher training affect
teacher professional effectiveness.
Individual attitude has something to
do with the teacher’s
professionalism.
Provision of requisite materials is
crucial.
Entry requirement determines the kind
of teachers to be produced.
Readiness to learn influences the
teacher’s professionalism.
In-service training and rightful
mentoring promote teacher
professional effectiveness.
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Individual Potentials and Attitudes: The SISOs as study participants argued that inherent teacher qualities
surpass training mode in determining effectiveness. The idea expressed here confirms autonomy and ethical
responsibility, as essential to professional practice (Transformative Professionalism Collective, 2024). These
were clearly spelt out in these key areas:
Innate Potential: The Supervisors emphasized that "individual potential differences... determine to a larger
extent how effective a teacher will be," irrespective of DE or RM background.
Attitude towards teaching Profession: Negative entering attitudes towards teaching profession exhibited by
some teachers in entering teaching "just... for lack of employment," were seen as detrimental to
professionalism and effectiveness. Thus, some teachers are perceived to have entered the teaching profession
as a mere source of employment for livelihood rather than the passion for it.
Readiness to Learn: The individual teacher's willingness and ability to learn on the job was deemed crucial: "It
is up to the student-teachers concern to avail themselves to what they are taught." Innate ability combined with
a positive attitude and eagerness to learn were viewed as key drivers of professional effectiveness, irrespective
of the mode of education.
Teacher Support Systems: The SISOs highlighted that effectiveness, regardless of training mode or
individual traits, is contingent upon adequate support offered on the field of work.
Instructional Supervision: Effective supervision was deemed "key in making teachers effective." The
Education Office Supervisors stressed the need for more supervision for both DE and RM teachers, framing it
as a supportive "learning relationship" aimed at developing "ethical competence, confidence and creativity"
(Mwesige and Nabwami, 2020; Aidah, et al., 2024).
Resource Provision: The "provision of requisite materials" was identified as "crucial" for enabling effective
teaching, thereby contributing to an effective teacher professionalism. The argument of resources in promoting
effectiveness supports the research findings by Bozkurt et al. (2020), while focusing on technology in this
modern era.
In-Service Training (INSET): Regular, high-quality INSET, encompassing "coaching, mentoring and
encouragement," was strongly advocated to support continuous professional development. As recommended in
Dheeraj and Kumari (2024) study, the supervisors noted that both teacher categories "could improve... if
necessary, materials and In-service education and training are offered."
CONCLUSION
This study confirms that Education Office Supervisors with particular reference to SISOs in Akonoba
Municipality perceive differences in the professional effectiveness of teachers based on their training mode,
favouring Regular Mode graduates. Effectiveness is evaluated across multiple dimensions, including lesson
planning, teaching methodology, classroom management, content knowledge base, and responsiveness to
feedback.
Crucially, the findings reveal that EOS conceptualize Teacher Professional Effectiveness as a multi-faceted
phenomenon aimed at holistic support for learners to improve their lives. Again, teacher professionalism is
influenced by three interconnected factors: (1) the nature and quality of the initial training programme (mode,
duration, entry requirements), (2) the individual teacher's inherent potential, professional attitudes, and
readiness for continuous learning, and (3) the quality and availability of ongoing support systems, particularly,
effective supervision, adequate resources, and relevant in-service training.
The perceived gap between DE and RM teachers underscores the need for targeted improvements within DE
programmes. However, the emphasis on individual attributes and support systems highlights that achieving
high levels of professional effectiveness is ultimately a shared responsibility. It requires concerted efforts from
teacher training institutions (both DE and RM), education authorities, school leadership (headteachers),
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supervisors (EOS/SISOs), and the teachers themselves. Teacher Professional Effectiveness is thus concluded to
be a collective endeavour demanding contributions from all stakeholders within the education ecosystem.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings, the following evidence-based recommendations are proposed in these broad areas:
Enhance Distance Education Programmes:
Distance Education institutions should significantly increase mandatory face-to-face contact hours,
particularly focused on practical teaching skills.
Strengthen curriculum and pedagogy: Intensify training in core teaching competencies: lesson planning,
diverse teaching methodologies, classroom management/organization, and deep subject content knowledge.
Revise teaching practice: Extend and restructure practical teaching sessions (Teaching Practice) within DE
programmes to ensure trainees gain substantial, supervised classroom experience before graduation.
Raise entry standards: Implement stricter admission requirements for DE programmes, including clear cut-off
points aligned with RM standards, to elevate the quality of entrants.
Strengthen Systemic Support:
Robust INSET programmes: Municipal Education Directorates should develop and implement regular, high-
quality In-Service Education and Training (INSET) for all teachers, incorporating coaching, mentoring, and
practical skill development.
Intensify and refine supervision: Education authorities should enhance instructional supervision strategies,
ensuring they are proactive, supportive, developmental and focused on resolving challenges for both DE and
RM teachers.
Ensure resource availability: Prioritize the consistent provision of essential teaching and learning materials
including technological based resources to all classrooms.
Foster Professional Collaboration and Mindset:
Promote peer learning: Encourage both DE and RM teachers to actively seek practical experiences and
mentorship from headteachers, experienced colleagues, and education officers.
Combat Bias: Teachers, Headteachers and EOS must actively challenge negative perceptions of DE teachers,
providing equitable support and opportunities for their professional growth.
Cultivate Professionalism: Teacher training institutions and schools should emphasize developing strong
professional ethics, positive attitudes towards teaching, and a commitment to continuous learning among all
trainees and serving teachers.
Recommendation for Policy
The Government, through the Ministry of Education, should formulate and implement a comprehensive policy
framework to harmonize the curricula of both distance and regular teacher education programmes. Such
alignment will help eliminate disparities and perceived discrimination between teachers trained through these
different modalities, particularly those arising from inconsistencies in admission protocols.
Suggestions for Further Research
To build upon this study and enhance transferability and applicability, the following recommendations are
made for future research:
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1. There should be an expanded geographical scope replicating this study across multiple municipalities and
regions in Ghana to validate and generalize the findings beyond Akonoba Municipality.
2. I suggest an Investigation into the availability, accessibility, quality, and perceived effectiveness of
teacher support systems (supervision, mentoring, resources, INSET) in pre-tertiary schools across Ghana.
3. There should be research on teacher self-perception and practices, exploring DE and RM teachers
regarding their preparedness and effectiveness, and correlate these with independent classroom
observations of their teaching practices.
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Appendix A
Interview Schedule For Education Officers (School Improvement Support Officers)
Good day sir/madam, I am Isaac Mepenedo, researching into the topic; Teacher professional effectiveness in
Ghana: A comparative analysis of distance and regular training modalities through the lens of education
office supervisorsYou have been purposefully selected as one of the participants for this study as a result of
your close interaction with teachers in the classroom and your role as an officer in charge of school supervision
and monitoring. You are kindly requested to respond to this interaction objectively as possible and be assured
of confidentiality and anonymity as we interact. This study is meant for purely academic purposes and that
your responses and full participation would be very much appreciated. Please, would you mind if I record the
interactions for the purpose of capturing all the details of the interactions with you? Thanks
1. What is your schedule?
2. How long have you served in this office as an education officer?
3. In your own words, who is an effective professional teacher?
4. What criteria or indicators would you use to measure how effective a professional teacher is?
5. Please, would you confirm that there is a mixture of trained teachers from Distance and the Regular
Education Programmes in this Municipality?
6. What will you say about the effective performance of the Distance Education programme Teachers as
compared to their Regular Education counterparts in the discharge of their professional duties regarding
the following areas:
I. Instructional Planning Skills - Lesson note preparation
II. Teaching Methodology and Delivery- Classroom teaching and their interaction with pupils, the use
of TLMs, Questioning Skills etc.
III. Classroom Organization /Management - Class Control and Pupils involvement in Lessons.
1. In your own opinion, what could be the contributing factors to your observations about the two groups of
teachers in the areas discussed on item (6) above?
2. What will you say about the performance of the Distance Education Teachers as compared to their
Regular Education Teachers counterparts in the discharge of their duties in terms of the kind of the
Knowledge or Subject Matter delivery? (How factual are the core points given to pupils, their
expressions in writing and speech, the innovative ideas brought on board in the day-to-day activities of
the school?)
3. In your own opinion, what could be the contributing factors to your observations about the two groups of
teachers in the areas discussed on item (8) above?
4. From your observation in the course of going about your supervisory and monitoring activities, how
would you describe the way these two categories of teachers respond to the technical and professional
supports you give them? (How they learn and apply new ideas, methods, techniques, adapt to new
situations and respond to assigned roles)
5. In your own opinion, what could be the contributing factors to your observations about the two groups of
teachers in the area discussed on item (9) above?
6. Kindly offer suggestions to improve upon your observations stated on items 6, 8, and 10 above.
7. What will be your suggestions to Distance and/or Regular Education Institutions on how to improve upon
their training programmes?
8. Please, do you have any question or concerns?
Thank You for Your Time
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Appendix B
Focus Group Discussion Schedule for Education Office Supervisors
Activity
Purpose / Focus
Responsible Person
Welcome,
Introduction,
and Consent
The moderator welcomes
participants, introduces the research
team, explains the purpose of the
discussion, outlines ethical
considerations (confidentiality,
voluntary participation), and seeks
informed consent.
Moderator / Researcher
Participant
Introductions
and Icebreaker
Participants briefly introduce
themselves, including, circuit, roles,
and years of supervisory experience
to build rapport and provide
background context for the
discussion.
Moderator
Overview of
Discussion
Focus and
Ground Rules
The moderator presents the two
guiding research questions and
explains the flow of the discussion.
Ground rules are established
(respect, turn-taking, confidentiality).
Moderator
Section 1:
Conceptualizati
on and
Perceptions of
Teacher
Professionalism
(Research
Question 1)
This section explores how education
officers understand and perceive
teacher professionalism. Guiding
prompts include: How do you define
teacher professionalism? What
attributes demonstrate
professionalism in teaching? How
does professionalism relate to
teacher effectiveness? In a sentence
of two, how will you describe a
professionally effective teacher?
Moderator (Facilitates
Discussion) / Note-taker
(Records Key Insights)
Section 2:
Comparative
Perceptions of
Professional
Effectiveness
(Research
Question 2)
Officers discuss perceived
differences in professional
effectiveness between teachers
trained through distance and regular
modalities. Guiding prompts include:
Are there identifiable strengths or
weaknesses in each group? In what
areas (pedagogy, content knowledge,
commitment, classroom
management) do differences exist?
What factors contribute to these
differences?
Moderator (Facilitates) / Note-
taker (Documents Key Points)
Section 3:
Suggestions and
Recommendatio
ns
Participants provide suggestions for
improving the professional
effectiveness of both groups of
teachers. Prompts include: o What
interventions could enhance teacher
professionalism and performance? o
What role can the education office or
training institutions play? o What
policy recommendations would you
make?
Moderator (Leads
Brainstorming) / Note-taker
Summary,
Validation, and
Closing
Remarks
The moderator summarizes key
discussion points for participant
validation, thanks participants, and
explains the next steps in the
research process.
Moderator / Researcher
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Appendix D
Education Officers’ Qualitative Thematic Data Analysis
Relevant Text
Repeating Ideas
Themes
Construct/Categories
My own observation is
that teachers who do not
prepare properly lead to
poor performances
while those who prepare
properly see their
pupils’ progress very
well.
Distance education
teachers have short
time so some
topics are not
treated.
Duration of
teacher
training.
MODE OF
TEACHER
TRAINING
The conventional
education teachers are
more professional than
the distance education
teachers
Distance education
teachers lack
different
methodology and
strategy of teaching
due to time factor
in their education
system
Duration of
teacher
training.
MODE OF
TEACHER
TRAINING
It depends on the
individual teachers
because some teachers
are just lazy.
Conventional
education teachers
undergo through
special training so
with little support
and suggestions
they are able to
cope, but with
distance education
teachers it is the
opposite.
Kind of
training
received.
MODE OF
TEACHER
TRAINING
It seems the tutors of
both categories are not
doing things in
common.
Distance education
teachers have
better knowledge-
based attitudes than
conventional
education teachers.
Kind of
training
received.
MODE OF
TEACHER
TRAINING
Both teachers need be
given further training on
lesson preparation and
presentation.
Conventional
education teachers
pass through
practical lesson
than distance
education teachers.
Kind of
training
received.
MODE OF
TEACHER
TRAINING
Work is done properly if
it goes with supervision.
The conventional
education teachers
are more
professional than
the distance
education teachers
Kind of
training
received.
MODE OF
TEACHER
TRAINING
Any variation or
deviation depends on
the individual teacher in
question.
It seems the tutors
of both categories
are not doing
things in common.
Kind of
training
received.
MODE OF
TEACHER
TRAINING
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It is individual potential
differences and not the
type of education, thus
whether distance or
conventional education.
All the teachers are
described as
trained teachers but
the course being
held for them
brings about the
effectiveness.
Kind of
training
received.
MODE OF
TEACHER
TRAINING
Distance education
teachers have short time
so some topics are not
treated.
The level of
discipline is high in
conventional
education.
Kind of
training
received.
MODE OF
TEACHER
TRAINING
Distance education
teachers lack different
methodology and
strategy of teaching due
to time factor in their
education system
I believe the nature
of teaching practice
is a core factor in
the disparities
between the two
groups of teachers.
Kind of
training
received.
MODE OF
TEACHER
TRAINING
Conventional education
teachers undergo
through special training
so with little support
and suggestions they are
able to cope, but with
distance education
teachers it is the
opposite.
The issue has to do
with the manner in
which education is
delivered to the
two groups of
teachers. The
conventional
education teachers
are much more
skilful and
knowledgeable
compared to their
distance education
colleagues.
Kind of
training
received.
MODE OF
TEACHER
TRAINING
Distance education
teachers have better
knowledge based
attitudes than
conventional education
teachers.
Conventional
education
institutions give
adequate, practical
and ample period
of training to their
students.
Duration of
teacher
training.
MODE OF
TEACHER
TRAINING
Conventional education
teachers pass through
practical lesson than
distance education
teachers.
Mode of selection
of distance
education teachers
need to be given a
second look.
Entry
Requirement.
MODE OF
TEACHER
TRAINING
Frequent in-service
training for them would
go a long way to help
them to deliver to the
level of the children and
not what they know.
The conventional
education teachers
have well-
structured teaching
practice.
Kind of
training
received.
MODE OF
TEACHER
TRAINING
All the teachers are
described as trained
teachers but the course
being held for them
Distance learners
have more course
materials to read
than their
Kind of
training
received.
MODE OF
TEACHER
TRAINING
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ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue X October 2025
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a
brings about the
effectiveness.
counterparts.
The source of the
problem goes beyond
their colleges or
institutions. Most of
them are just there for
lack of employment.
Most distance
education teachers
are those who did
not do well in their
‘O’ level or
WASCE.
Entry
Requirement
MODE OF
TEACHER
TRAINING
The right mentoring by
their superiors will
gradually help them to
adapt to changing
situations
The training given
at the distance
education
programme is not
as intensive as that
of the conventional
education
programme.
Kind of
training
received.
MODE OF
TEACHER
TRAINING
In general, some
teachers are not good
not because of the
training they had.
Distance education
focuses more on
academic
performance but
not on skills and
attitudes.
Kind of
training
received.
MODE OF
TEACHER
TRAINING
I believe the nature of
teaching practice is a
core factor in the
disparities between the
two groups of teachers.
Distance education
programmes
should be more of
practical work by
intensifying
teaching practice
aspect of the
course.
Kind of
training
received.
MODE OF
TEACHER
TRAINING
The issue has to do with
the manner in which
education is delivered to
the two groups of
teachers. The
conventional education
teachers are much more
skilful and
knowledgeable
compared to their
distance education
colleagues.
Distance education
curriculum has less
practical
component of their
course.
Kind of
training
received.
MODE OF
TEACHER
TRAINING
Conventional education
institutions give
adequate, practical and
ample period of training
to their students.
It is up to the
students concern to
avail themselves to
what they are
taught.
Readiness to
learn
INDIVIDUAL’S
POTENTIAL AND
ATTITUDES
They should be ready
for corrections.
In general, some
teachers are not
good not because
of the training they
had.
Individual’s
attitudes
INDIVIDUAL’S
POTENTIAL AND
ATTITUDES
Mode of selection of
distance education
My own
observation is that
Individual’s
potential
INDIVIDUAL’S
POTENTIAL AND
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ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue X October 2025
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a
teachers need to be
given a second look.
teachers who do
not prepare
properly lead to
poor performances
while those who
prepare properly
see their pupils’
progress very well.
differences
ATTITUDES
The conventional
education teachers have
well-structured teaching
practice.
It depends on the
individual teachers
because some
teachers are just
lazy.
Individual’s
attitudes
INDIVIDUAL’S
POTENTIAL AND
ATTITUDES
Distance learners have
more course materials
to read than their
counterparts.
Any variation or
deviation depends
on the individual
teacher in question.
Individual’s
potential
differences
INDIVIDUAL’S
POTENTIAL AND
ATTITUDES
Most distance education
teachers are those who
did not do well in their
‘O’ level or WASCE.
The source of the
problem goes
beyond their
colleges or
institutions. Most
of them are just
there for lack of
employment.
Individual’s
attitudes
INDIVIDUAL’S
POTENTIAL AND
ATTITUDES
These two teachers
could improve upon
their teaching, if
necessary, materials and
In-service education
training is offered to
them.
They should be
ready for
corrections.
Readiness to
learn
INDIVIDUAL’S
POTENTIAL AND
ATTITUDES
The individual’s
willingness or readiness
to master the subject
matter and be
innovative is a factor
irrespective of the
educational programme.
The individual’s
willingness or
readiness to master
the subject matter
and be innovative
is a factor
irrespective of the
educational
programme.
Readiness to
learn
INDIVIDUAL’S
POTENTIAL AND
ATTITUDES
The training given at
the distance education
programme is not as
intensive as that of the
conventional education
programme.
Anything negative
from any of them is
their personal
attitude and has
nothing or no
connection with
their courses.
Individual
attitudes
INDIVIDUAL’S
POTENTIAL AND
ATTITUDES
The two categories of
teachers need more
supervision.
It is individual
potential
differences and not
the type of
education, thus
whether distance or
Individual
potential
differences
INDIVIDUAL’S
POTENTIAL AND
ATTITUDES
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
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a
conventional
education.
Distance education
focuses more on
academic performance
but not on skills and
attitudes.
Distance education
teachers need
consistent INSET.
As officers, we
need to supervise,
monitor and
encourage them
since they are
willing to learn.
In-service
training and
rightful
mentoring
TEACHER
SUPPORT SYSTEM
The level of discipline
is high in conventional
education.
The two categories
of teachers need
more supervision.
Appropriate
instructional
supervision
TEACHER
SUPPORT SYSTEM
Anything negative from
any of them is their
personal attitude and
has nothing or no
connection with their
courses.
Frequent in-service
training for them
would go a long
way to help them
to deliver to the
level of the
children and not
what they know.
In-service
training and
rightful
mentoring
TEACHER
SUPPORT SYSTEM
It is up to the students
concern to avail
themselves to what they
are taught.
Both teachers need
be given further
training on lesson
preparation and
presentation.
In-service
training and
rightful
mentoring
TEACHER
SUPPORT SYSTEM
Distance education
programmes should be
more of practical work
by intensifying
teaching practice aspect
of the course.
Work is done
properly if it goes
with supervision.
Appropriate
instructional
supervision
TEACHER
SUPPORT SYSTEM
Distance education
curriculum has less
practical component of
their course.
The two categories
of teachers need
more supervision.
Appropriate
instructional
supervision
TEACHER
SUPPORT SYSTEM
The two groups of
teachers are at par. This
is stemmed from the
fact that a teacher’s
ability to deliver in the
classroom depends on
the individual’s own
intensions, regardless of
the training given.
These two teachers
could improve
upon their
teaching, if
necessary,
materials and In-
service education
and training is
offered to them.
Provision of
requisite
materials/ In-
service
training and
rightful
mentoring.
TEACHER
SUPPORT SYSTEM
Distance education
teachers need consistent
INSET. As officers, we
need to supervise,
monitor and encourage
them since they are
willing to learn.
The right
mentoring by their
superiors will
gradually help
them to adapt to
changing situations
In-service
training and
rightful
mentoring.
TEACHER
SUPPORT SYSTEM