In Nigeria, youth employment has remained a persistent challenge for successive governments. Despite

numerous entrepreneurship and job creation programmes, the outcomes have been insufficient to reverse the

trend, resulting in socio-economic issues such as high unemployment, underemployment, insecurity, and poverty.

Data from the World Bank and National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) indicate that youth unemployment fluctuated

between 6.3% and 33% from 2010 to 2020, as millions of young people in their twenties entered the labour

market annually with limited employment opportunities. Although the decline in unemployment to 4.3% in 2024

serve as survival strategies and avenues for poverty reduction, many of these young entrepreneurs lack the

requisite skills to establish and sustain viable businesses. This study, therefore, seeks to promote entrepreneurial

education with an effective curriculum that strategically equips youths with competencies in innovation, business

planning, risk management, and financial literacy, thereby enhancing their capacity for sustainable enterprise

This research utilizes a mixed-methods approach, combining qualitative strategy to critically review existing

literature and theoretical concepts of the study; and quantitative strategies to analyze historical statistical data

A pilot study was conducted using structured questionnaires distributed to a purposive sample of 90 alumni

members of a secondary school, with a focus on identifying those who are self-employed. From this group, 18

of individual traits—such as self-reliance, risk-taking, and autonomy—that influence entrepreneurial intentions

and the pursuit of self-employment. Third, the Human Capital Theory which emphasizes education and skills.

Fourth, Institutional Theory which are government interventions to support entrepreneurship. Together, these

frameworks provide a lens through which the interplay between structural constraints and individual agency in

Keywords: Youth Entrepreneurship, Self-employment, socio-economic challenges, entrepreneurial education,

Entrepreneurship plays a pivotal role in driving economic growth through job creation and fostering innovation

especially in emerging economics with limited formal employment (Osakwe, 2024). It involves individuals

In Nigeria, youth unemployment persists despite interventions like N-Power, SAED, and education reforms

(Korter, 2023). A key challenge is the weak integration of indigenous apprenticeship systems—effective for skill

transfer into formal curricula (Lawal, 2024; Omosunlade & Gbadamosi, 2022; Agu & Nwachukwu, 2020). While

apprentices often lack formal education to scale ventures, university graduates possess theory without practical

entrepreneurial skills (Okoro & Nwankwo, 2022). This mismatch leaves both groups underprepared for

entrepreneurship. Policy and curriculum gaps further fuel unemployment, frustration, and reliance on informal

The primary aim of this project is to investigate how the incorporation of apprenticeship and vocational models

into the formal education curriculum would connect practical skills to theoretical knowledge, alongside the

establishment of University-Based Enterprises (UBEs) to function through public–private partnerships to

reforms have had limited success, as many youths still lack the practical skills required to start and sustain

businesses. While traditional apprenticeship provides valuable hands-on skills, it often lacks the formal education

needed for scaling ventures. This dual gap—weak integration of apprenticeship into formal education and

inadequate vocational training in higher institutions limits entrepreneurial readiness and growth. Addressing this

requires examining how entrepreneurial education, formal schooling, and practical training can strengthen youth

This study adopted a mixed-methods approach to examine youth entrepreneurship in Nigeria, focusing on

A comprehensive literature review was conducted to map existing theoretical and conceptual frameworks

Participants met the inclusion criteria of being aged between 21 and 46 and actively engaged in small business

activities. The pilot helped refine the data collection instruments, ensuring that the questions were relevant, clear,

Empirical data were collected from the selected entrepreneurs to explore trends in entrepreneurial education,

formal education levels, the nature and duration of their ventures, motivations for starting businesses, sources of

capital, and business registration status. These variables were chosen to evaluate the existing interventions and

the broader entrepreneurial environment for youth. By analyzing these factors, the study aimed to understand

sample size of 18. This procedure was necessary to ensure that only complete and reliable responses were

included in the analysis. Data integrity was particularly critical given the application of Structural Equation

Modeling (SEM) to evaluate the relationships among variables and to test the fit of the proposed theoretical

models. Prioritizing data quality over quantity enhanced the validity and accuracy of the SEM analysis. In light

of the small sample size, descriptive statistical techniques—including frequencies, medians, and ranges—were

employed as part of the initial analysis. These methods facilitated the identification of patterns and trends within

the dataset, thereby providing a foundation for discussion and interpretation in the context of youth

Dominant Age Group (41–50 years): This group accounted for 10 of the 18 survey responses, representing 55.6%

of the surveyed entrepreneurs. While they may lack formal entrepreneurial education, many have gained

experience through trial and error, or what Gottschalk & Müller (2022) describe as “learning the hard way,”

which can effectively increase knowledge and skills. Similarly, Mayr et al. (2020) suggest that failure can be a

critical avenue for skill development and resilience in entrepreneurship. Adelowo & Henrico (2025) further note

The jobs reported by participants show strong representation in both manual and skilled trades, reflecting the

continued importance of practical skills as a pathway to self-employment. Occupations such as tailoring,

electrical work, mechanical services, electrical wiring, and car spare parts trading demonstrate a heavy reliance

on hands-on, technical, and mechanical expertise. Many participants are also engaged in trading, retailing, and

The findings indicate that most participants (13 out of 18) did not receive entrepreneurial education or training

before starting their ventures, reflecting a major gap in formal entrepreneurial preparation. This lack of training

limits business planning, preparedness, and long-term sustainability. Two explanations emerge: first, many

entrepreneurs may have entered traditional businesses based on Psychological Theory, which links

entrepreneurship to upbringing traits fostering self-reliance (Agu & Nwachukwu, 2020). Second, others may

Diploma holders, however, were underrepresented with only 4 participants (22.2%). Their weaker participation

may suggest interrupted educational pathways—possibly due to financial constraints—leading them to

Crucially, these findings reinforce the research problem: the inadequate integration of apprenticeship and

vocational training into formal education systems. Without a strategic blend of formal education and

apprenticeship-based practical learning, youths remain caught between underutilized academic qualifications

and underdeveloped entrepreneurial skills. Addressing this gap through curriculum reforms and University

Based Enterprises (UBEs) could equip youths with both the theoretical foundations and the practical

The findings from the pilot study revealed an even split between entrepreneurs with GCSE/SSCE qualifications

and those with Graduate/Postgraduate qualifications (38.9% each). The former typically entered

entrepreneurship through apprenticeship schemes, gaining practical skills and mentorship but lacking the

benefits of formal higher education. The latter, though highly educated, often ventured into business out of

levels of education enhance the ability to embed sustainable practices into business models. On the other hand,

Graduate/Postgraduate entrepreneurs—while highly educated—lack entrepreneurial education and practical

business skills, which weakens their resilience in navigating the business environment. Akinbami (2021),

Aaltonen and Kurvinen (2025), and Ibidunni et al. (2021) similarly noted that low exposure to entrepreneurial

training undermines the ability to navigate regulatory systems, secure funding, adapt to technological changes,

Overall, the evidence suggests that while apprenticeship builds practical knowledge and higher education

strengthens analytical capacity, the absence of an integrated approach combining both strands leaves most youth

When analysing the trends across three decades of entrepreneurial education by age group, the respondent who

was unsure about receiving entrepreneurial education was classified as not having received it. The results show

that within the 21–30 age group, 2 out of 6 respondents reported having received entrepreneurial education,

while all 2 participants in the 31–40 age group reported none. In the 41–50 age group, the majority also lacked

Overall, the findings reveal that 16 out of the 18 respondents had no entrepreneurial education before venturing

into business. This strongly suggests that the majority of these entrepreneurs entered business primarily out of

From the chart above, 77.8% of respondents reported not having received entrepreneurial education, while 22.2%

indicated that they had, as illustrated in the pie chart below. The 22.2% who received entrepreneurial education

are evenly distributed between the 21–30 and 41–50 age groups, as shown in the table above. This uneven

Nigeria’s formal education policy. The fact that 77.8% of respondents likely did not learn entrepreneurship in

school underscores a substantial gap in formal entrepreneurial education, revealing a critical area for policy

Participants reported several factors influencing their decision to become self-employed, including personal

choice, necessity due to lack of employment, and engagement in apprenticeship programs. The distribution of

these responses is illustrated in the chart below, highlighting the diverse motivations behind youth

The analysis: 10 of the 18 participants represents 55.6% relied on family and friends. 7 of the 18 participants

represented, 38.9% relied on their savings, with only 1 participant or 5.6% who relied on bank loans. The

evidence reinforces World Bank (2021) analysis that entrepreneurs dominantly rely on informal lending or

support networks likely due to limited access to formal credit, or lack of trust and collateral (Nguyen and Canh,

2021). It further suggests that there exists an intention leading to preparation as the youth embark on savings to

findings align with Human Capital Theory, showing that higher education facilitates formal business practices,