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Prevalence of Hepatitis C Virus among Individuals Living with HIV
Infection in Ogbomoso
AKINTOYE Jeremiah Abiola
1,
*; OPALEYE Oluyinka Oladele
1
; OJURONGBE Olusola
1
; OLOWE
Olugbenga Adekunle
1
; MORAKINYO Julianah Damola
1
; ADIGUN Adebunmi Oluyemi
1
;
OLAYINKA Adenike Titilayo
1
; OYEKALE Adesola Oyekunle
2
; FAJOBI Victor Oluwaseun
1
1
Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, College of Health Sciences, Ladoke Akintola
University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria
2
Humboldt Research Hub – Centre for Emerging and Re-emerging Infectious Diseases, LAUTECH,
Ogbomoso, Nigeria
*Corresponding Author
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2025.1210000186
Received: 04 October 2025; Accepted: 09 October 2025; Published: 14 November 2025
ABSTRACT
Hepatitis C virus affects 5-15% of the 38 million people living with HIV globally. Individuals living with HIV
are six times more likely to contract HCV than those without HIV. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection has been
associated with liver disease including liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in
chronically-infected persons. However, in HIV/HCV co-infected individuals, increased rate of progression to
cirrhosis and HCC has been reported This study is aimed at determining the prevalence of HCV infection
among HIV positive individuals attending the antiretroviral clinic, Oyo state general hospital, Ogbomoso.
In this cross-sectional study, 392 individuals living with HIV were recruited for the study. Socio-demographic
data were collected using a structured questionnaire. Blood samples were collected and qualitative screening
was performed to detect the presence or absence of HCV antibodies in the blood samples using Rapid
Diagnostics Test (Nantong Egens Biotechnology Co., Ltd., China.) according to the kit manufacturers
instruction.
HCV antibodies was not detected in any of the 392 samples, resulting in a seroprevalence rate of 0.0%. The
gender distribution showed a higher percentage of female, with 71% female and 29% male participants.
Marital status showed, 62.5% were married, 15.8% single, 17.9% widowed, and 3.8% divorced or separated.
Additionally, 20.4% had undergone blood transfusion, 6.6% engaged in unprotected sex, and 1.5% reported
intravenous drug use (IDU).
This study found no evidence of HIV/HCV co-infection. This result may be attributed to the low prevalence of
high-risk behaviors, as indicated by the 0.0% incarceration rate and the minimal proportion (1.5%) of
intravenous drug users. However, the exclusive use of RDTs may underestimate true prevalence. Routine
confirmatory screening using PCR or ELISA and continuous public health sensitization are recommended to
prevent co-infection and improve outcomes.
Keywords: Hepatitis C Virus (HCV), HIV co-infection, Prevalence, Epidemiology, Ogbomoso
INTRODUCTION
Hepatitis C Virus is an important human pathogen and a viral infection that affects the liver thereby increasing
the risks for chronic liver diseases, which include steatosis, fibrosis, liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular
carcinoma (Baeka et al., 2021).
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HCV is one of the major causes of death and morbidity globally with an estimated 50 million people living
with chronic hepatitis C virus infection. About 1.0 million new infections occur per year (WHO, 2024b), and
244 000 people die as a result of HCV yearly (WHO, 2024a). Currently, about 10 million people are infected
with hepatitis C in Africa. Although diagnostic tools and effective treatments exist, more than 90% of
individuals with hepatitis B and C in Africa do not receive the essential care they need (WHO, 2024b).
Both HIV and HCV share a similar mode of transmission (Innocent-Adiele et al., 2021) including
percutaneous exposure to blood or blood products, sexual intercourse, and perinatal transmission.
The reported prevalence of HCV/HIV coinfection has varied from place to place and region to region.
Prevalence rates as high as 36.4% has been reported in Mexico (Jose-Abrego et al., 2024), 16.1% in Malaysia
(Akhtar et al., 2021), with prevalence as low as 0.5% having also been reported in Nigeria (Oshun et al., 2023),
0.83% in Congo (Thompson et al. 2022). This variation suggests that the prevalence of HIV/HCV co-infection
may differ across geographic regions, likely influenced by the dominant risk factors present in each country
(Jose-Abrego et al., 2024).
In Ogbomoso, the site of this study, there is a paucity of empirical data on the prevalence of HCV/HIV
coinfection, thereby underscoring the necessity of this research.
Study Hypothesis: The prevalence of HCV infection among PLHIV in Ogbomoso is low, reflecting minimal
exposure to high-risk behaviors.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Area
Oyo state which is one of the states located in the South western region of Nigeria. and has 23 Local
Government Areas. Ogbomoso is the second largest city in Oyo State with a population of approximately
683,000. The city lies within the Guinea savannah belt, with moderate climatic conditions and a mixed
urban-rural setting.
Study Population
The study population constituted HIV seropositive individuals under clinical monitoring in the antiretroviral
clinic in the State General Hospital, Ogbomoso, Oyo state, Nigeria. A total of Three hundred and nintey - two
(392) participants were selected and enrolled for the study.
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
All consenting individuals with positive HIV diagnosis attending HIV clinic in Oyo state general Hospital,
Ogbomosho were recruited for this study. Patients who did not have their HIV status confirmed, were excluded
from this study.
Sample Collection, Preparation and Storage
Five milliliters of blood samples was collected through venipuncture into vacutainer bottles. The samples were
then spun at 4000 rpm for 10 minutes to separate the serum from the whole blood. Samples were clearly
identified with codes in order to avoid misinterpretation of results.
Serological Analysis
Serum was tested for the qualitative detection of HCV antibodies using Rapid Diagnostic Test kit (Nantong
Egens Biotechnology Co., Ltd., China). The serologic test and interpretation of results were done according to
instructions of the kit manufacturer.
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Data Analysis
Descriptive analysis was performed to summarize data obtained. Differences among groups were compared
using Chi-square tests for categorical variables. P values <0.05 were considered statistically significant. Data
analysis was done using IBM SPSS Statistics, version 25 (IBM Corp).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Results
Demographic characteristics of the study population
Characteristics of the study group are highlighted in Table 1. A total of 392 study participants were included in
the study. The study participants are a diverse group in terms of their age, gender, marital status, education,
occupation, ethnicity, and religion. There was female preponderance with a proportion of 278 (70.9%)
compared to males 114 (29.1%). The gender distribution showed a female-to-male ratio of 2.4:1. A vast
majority of the study participants were between the ages of 37 and 54 years (48.7%), with a smaller proportion
under the age of 18 (7.9%) with those aged 55 years and above accounting for 15.1%.
Many (49.1%, n = 111) of the study participants were found to be married. About 46.5% (n = 105) of them
were single, while a few (4%, n = 10) were widowed.
Table 1: Socio-demographic characteristics of study participants
Variable
Categories
Frequency
Percent
Age
< 18
31
7.9
19-36
111
28.3
37-54
191
48.7
>55 years
59
15.1
Gender
Male
114
29.1
Female
278
70.9
Marital
status
Single
62
15.8
Married
245
62.5
Divorced/Separated
15
3.8
Widow
70
17.9
Education
No formal education
49
12.5
Primary school
127
32.4
Secondary school
147
37.5
ONC/NCE
42
10.7
HND/BSC
26
6.6
Master degree
1
0.3
Occupation
Unemployed
64
16.3
Self employed
255
65.1
Civil servant
33
8.4
Others
40
10.2
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Ethnicity
Yoruba
355
90.6
Hausa
16
4.1
Igbo
19
4.8
Others
2
0.5
Religion
Christianity
258
65.8
Islamic
131
33.4
Traditional
2
0.5
Others
1
0.3
HCV Seroprevalence
Analysis for HCV antibodies using the RDT kit revealed a prevalence rate of 0.0% for HCV. However, the
95% confidence interval for prevalence (0.00–0.76%) was calculated, showing the possible upper bound of
undetected infection.
Figure 1. Seroprevalence of Anti-HCV antibodies among HIV infected individuals
Analysis of Risk Behaviours Among Study Participants
The risk behaviors and medical history among study participants show that the majority of individuals do not
engage in unprotected sex (93.4%), while 6.6% report engaging in unprotected sex. The majority have only
one sexual partner (67.6%), with smaller proportions having two (13.5%) or more than two partners (0.5%). A
significant portion (18.4%) reported having no sexual partners. Intravenous drug use is uncommon, with only
1.5% of participants reporting it, while most (98.5%) do not engage in it. A total of 20.4% of participants have
had a blood transfusion, and 7.1% have undergone a surgical procedure, while the vast majority have not
(92.9%). In terms of alcohol consumption, 14.8% of participants drink alcohol, while the majority (85.2%) do
not. Notably, none of the participants have ever been incarcerated.
Table 2: Risk behaviors and medical history among study participants
Categories
Frequency
Percent
Yes
26
6.6
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No
366
93.4
One
265
67.6
Two
53
13.5
> Two
2
0.5
None
72
18.4
Yes
6
1.5
No
386
98.5
Yes
80
20.4
No
312
79.6
Yes
28
7.1
No
364
92.9
Yes
58
14.8
No
334
85.2
No
392
100.0
DISCUSSION
HIV has been reported to be associated with a higher prevalence of both Hepatitis B and C in Sub-Saharan
Africa and these infections share a similar mode of transmission with HIV (Innocent-Adiele et al., 2021). In
Nigeria, hepatitis co-infection with HIV is linked with an increase in morbidity and mortality (Cookey et al.,
2021). Consequently, coinfection with HCV was assessed.
The findings indicate a 0.0% prevalence rate of HCV among HIV-positive individuals. This study aligns with
estimates reported in prior studies Cookey et al., (2021) who also found the 0.0% prevalence rate of HCV
antibody among PLHIV in Rivers state Nigeria, Opaleye et al., who reported a 0.0% HIV/HCV coinfection
prevalence among pregnant women in southwestern Nigeria in 2016.
Some studies have also documented relatively low rates of HIV and HCV coinfection. For example, Oti et al.
(2019) reported a 0.8% prevalence of HIV/HCV coinfection among pregnant women in Keffi, Nigeria.
Although these investigations were not limited to individuals already diagnosed with HIV, their results
indicate that HIV/HCV coinfections is not common.
In contrast, higher co-infection rates of 4.4% Baeka et al., (2021) and 4.3% Ugwu et al., (2023) have been
reported in the country. The study also contradicts the 14.6% and 15.0% reported by Adesegun et al., (2020)
and Newton et al., (2021) in Abeokuta.
Although correlation tests between behavioral risk factors and seropositivity were planned, they could not be
performed due to the absence of HCV-positive samples. Nonetheless, descriptive analysis showed low
exposure to risky behaviors within this population. Just 6.6% had ever had unprotected sex, and none had ever
been in prison. These findings support the conclusion that the low rate of high-risk activity among this group
may contribute to the lack of detection of HCV infection.
However, exclusive reliance on RDTs limits diagnostic accuracy. Studies have demonstrated that HCV Rapid
Diagnostic Tests (RDTs) can yield false-negative results (Jargalsaikhan et al., 2020). This limitation highlights
the importance of incorporating more sensitive follow-up tests in future studies.
Socio-cultural factors likely influenced the outcome of the study. The high rate of monogamous relationships
and relatively low participation in intravenous drug use may have reduced exposure to HCV modes of
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transmission in Ogbomoso. Despite this, knowledge gaps, limited utilization of confirmatory testing, potential
underreporting of stigmatized behaviors remain possible sources of bias.
CONCLUSION
This study found no evidence of HIV/HCV co-infection among 392 HIV-positive individuals in Ogbomoso.
This result may be attributed to the low prevalence of high-risk behaviors, as indicated by the 0.0%
incarceration rate and the minimal proportion (1.5%) of intravenous drug users. Additionally, the high
numbers of individuals that were married 245 (62.5%) may reduce risk exposures. Despite the 0.0%
prevalence rate, the risk remains, (particularly in immunocompromised individuals) as well as significant gaps
in HCV awareness, screening, and treatment accessibility. Routine screening and early public health
sensitization are therefore crucial to mitigate the risk of co-infection and improve disease outcomes.
Ethical Approval
Ethical Approval was obtained from the Ethical Review committee of the Oyo state ministry of Health.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to the Oyo state ministry of Health for granting the approval required to perform this
study. The authors also appreciate all the individuals who gave their consent and partook in the study.
COMPETING INTERESTS: Authors have declared no competing interests.
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