INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue X October 2025
Page 2215
www.rsisinternational.org
Pollution Levels and Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices (KAP) on
Air Pollution among Residents of Ebocha and Obrikom, Rivers State,
Nigeria
Ifeanyi, A
1
and Ajero, C.M. U
1
, Ogbuji, T. O
2
, Ukpabi, J. I
2
, and Duruanyim Harrison, I. K
2
, Chigbo,
U.N
1
1
Department of Animal and Environmental Biology, Imo State University, Owerri Nigeria
2
Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Federal University of Technology, Owerri Nigeria
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2025.1210000197
Received: 20 October 2025; Accepted: 28 October 2025; Published: 15 November 2025
ABSTRACT
Air pollution is a major environmental health concern in Nigeria’s Niger Delta, where gas flaring and oil-
related activities heighten community exposures. This study assessed both ambient air quality and the
knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) of residents in Ebocha and Obrikom, Rivers State. Over seven
weeks during the rainy season (April–May 2025), concentrations of PM₂.₅, PM₁₀, O₃, CO, NO₂, and SO₂ were
measured using portable air quality monitors and compared with World Health Organization (WHO, 2021)
guidelines. Mean concentrations were PM₂.₅: 8 µg/m³, PM₁₀: 25 µg/m³, O₃: 35 µg/m³, CO: 317 µg/m³, NO₂: 30
µg/m³, and SO₂: 5 µg/m³—all well within permissible limits and lower than values commonly reported in
Nigerian urban centers. Alongside monitoring, a structured KAP survey was conducted among 187
respondents (98 in Ebocha and 89 in Obrikom). Awareness of air pollution was high (84%), and all
respondents acknowledged health and environmental consequences. However, only 42% considered it a
serious threat, and just 58% expressed willingness to act. Gender differences were evident: women reported
higher daily exposure, while men were more likely to consider relocation or activism. These findings point to a
gap between awareness and effective action, shaped by socioeconomic and cultural factors. Sustained year-
round monitoring and community-based interventions are needed to reduce long-term risks in the Niger Delta.
Keywords: Air pollution, Niger Delta, Gas flaring, Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices (KAP),
Environmental health
INTRODUCTION
Air pollution is now recognized as one of the most serious global health risks, responsible for millions of
premature deaths annually. According to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2024), pollutants such as fine
particulate matter (PM₂.₅), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), ozone (O₃), and carbon monoxide
(CO) are strongly linked to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. In Nigeria, the Air Quality Life Index
(AQLI, 2025) ranks air pollution as the third leading external threat to life expectancy, underscoring its
national importance.
The Niger Delta presents a unique case where environmental and social risks intersect. Communities such as
Ebocha and Obrikom in Ogba Egbema Ndoni Local Government Area host multinational oil operations and
continuous gas flaring. While oil extraction offers limited economic benefits, it has long contributed to visible
and felt environmental degradation: black soot coating homes, reduced farm yields, and contamination of
rivers and streams. For residents who depend on farming and fishing, the combination of industrial emissions
and weak adaptive capacity makes exposure especially severe.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue X October 2025
Page 2216
www.rsisinternational.org
Most Nigerian air quality research has focused on major cities, documenting frequent exceedances of WHO
guidelines (Odubanjo et al., 2024; Arifalo et al., 2025). Studies in smaller towns have highlighted links
between indoor and outdoor pollution, poor waste management, and heavy reliance on biomass fuels (Basil et
al., 2024; Lala et al., 2025). Yet relatively little is known about rural oil-producing areas and how communities
perceive and respond to pollution risks. This study addresses that gap by combining direct air quality
measurements with a KAP survey in Ebocha and Obrikom.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Air quality studies across Nigeria consistently show dangerous levels of pollutants. Odubanjo et al. (2024)
reported persistent exceedances of WHO PM₂.₅ thresholds in Lagos, Abuja, and Benin. Arifalo et al. (2025)
found that even semi-urban Ekiti State experienced indoor and outdoor conditions that posed health risks.
Industrial activity in manufacturing zones has been highlighted as a key driver of particulate emissions (Lala et
al., 2025). Basil et al. (2024) further demonstrated how seasonal variation plays a role, with higher pollution in
the dry season than during rains.
Although monitoring data provide important baselines, they say little about how people perceive pollution or
act in response. KAP studies help fill this gap, revealing that awareness of risks does not always translate into
protective behavior. Atuyambe et al. (2024) noted that in rural African settings, households may understand
pollution sources yet continue harmful practices due to economic necessity. In the Niger Delta, residents often
witness visible smoke or gas flares but lack information on long-term health effects, leading to a normalization
of pollution. Weak regulatory enforcement, despite policy reforms such as the adoption of ECOWAS fuel
standards (Reuters, 2024), contributes to a sense of powerlessness.
Most air quality studies in Nigeria emphasize urban contexts, while rural oil-producing communities remain
understudied. Without understanding both measured exposure and local perceptions, interventions risk being
ineffective. This study therefore combines objective monitoring with KAP analysis to provide a fuller picture
of air pollution risks in Ebocha and Obrikom.
METHODOLOGY
The study took place in Ebocha and Obrikom, two communities about 10 km apart, both hosting AGIP oil
facilities and continuous gas flaring. Ebocha is mainly a settler community, while Obrikom is predominantly
indigenous.
Air quality monitoring was conducted for seven weeks during the rainy season (April–May 2025). Portable
devices measured PM₂.₅, PM₁₀, O₃, CO, NO₂, and SO₂ in line with WHO (2021) guidelines. Daily averages
were calculated for 24-hour pollutants, and maximum daily values were used for 1- and 8-hour limits.
The KAP survey included 187 respondents (98 in Ebocha, 89 in Obrikom), selected using Yamane’s formula at
95% confidence. Structured questionnaires captured socio-demographic data and KAP responses. Literate
respondents self-administered questionnaires, while trained assistants interviewed non-literate participants.
Ethical approval was granted by the Rivers State Ministry of Environment.
Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and chi-square tests, with significance set at p < 0.05.
RESULTS
Ambient air monitoring showed pollutant levels well within WHO guidelines (Table 1). PM₂.₅ averaged 8
µg/m³, PM₁₀ averaged 25 µg/m³, O₃ averaged 35 µg/m³, CO averaged 317 µg/m³, NO₂ averaged 30 µg/m³, and
SO₂ averaged 5 µg/m³.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue X October 2025
Page 2217
www.rsisinternational.org
Table 1. Air Pollutant Concentrations and Comparison with WHO Guidelines
Pollutant
Mean ± SD (µg/m³)
WHO Guideline
Interpretation
PM₂.₅
8 ± 1.8 (24h)
15 (24h)
Safe
PM₁₀
25.3 ± 5.1 (24h)
45 (24h)
Safe
O₃
34.6 ± 6.6 (8h)
100 (8h)
Safe
CO
316.7 ± 104.1 (8h)
4000 (8h)
Very low
NO₂
29.7 ± 23.5 (1h)
200 (1h)
Safe
SO₂
5.4 ± 1.1 (24h)
40 (24h)
Very low
Table 2. Demographic characteristics of respondents in Obrikom and Ebocha (n=187)
Total %
Male %
Female %
Chi-square (p)
27.0
58.0
42.0
31.0
62.0
38.0
20.0
61.0
39.0
p>0.05
9.0
45.0
55.0
13.0
70.0
30.0
17.0
42.0
58.0
44.0
61.0
39.0
p>0.05
19.0
59.0
41.0
14.0
67.0
33.0
18.0
65.0
35.0
29.0
66.0
34.0
p<0.05
32.0
55.0
45.0
21.0
52.0
48.0
30.0
62.0
38.0
Total %
Male %
Female %
Chi-square (p)
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue X October 2025
Page 2218
www.rsisinternational.org
32.0
45.0
55.0
p<0.05
12.0
60.0
40.0
26.0
68.0
32.0
96.0
59.0
41.0
4.0
52.0
48.0
p>0.05
Table 3. Respondents’ knowledge of air pollution (n=187)
Knowledge Indicator
Total %
Male %
Female %
Chi-square (p)
Heard about air pollution (Yes)
84.0
60.0
40.0
p>0.05
Could explain meaning (Yes)
55.0
58.0
42.0
p>0.05
Main perceived causes
– Gas flaring
51.0
57.0
43.0
p<0.05
– Firewood
23.0
38.0
62.0
p<0.05
– Vehicular emissions
15.0
72.0
28.0
Believe air pollution has consequences
100.0
100.0
100.0
–
Consider air pollution a serious problem
42.0
63.0
37.0
p<0.05
Table 4. Respondents’ attitudes and practices toward air pollution (n=187)
Indicator
Total %
Male %
Female %
Chi-square (p)
Concerned about air pollution (Yes)
51.0
60.0
40.0
p<0.05
Daily exposure to air pollution
28.0
45.0
55.0
p<0.05
Reported health effects (respiratory)
18.0
47.0
53.0
p<0.05
Consider relocation due to pollution
(Yes)
31.0
49.0
51.0
p<0.05
Believe it’s important to reduce pollution
96.0
59.0
41.0
NS
Waste disposal methods
– Burning
22.0
67.0
33.0
– Collection
26.0
62.0
38.0
p>0.05
– Landfilling
25.0
54.0
46.0
Sign of worsening pollution: visible
smoke
70.0
61.0
39.0
p>0.05
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue X October 2025
Page 2219
www.rsisinternational.org
Indicator
Total %
Male %
Female %
Chi-square (p)
Willing to take personal action (Yes)
58.0
62.0
38.0
p<0.05
Main precautions
– Protests/activism
44.0
57.0
43.0
– Avoid burning
16.0
50.0
50.0
– Awareness creation
13.0
62.0
38.0
Survey results (Tables 2–4) highlighted key demographic and KAP patterns. Respondents were mostly young
adults (18–39 years), with secondary education as the most common attainment. Men accounted for 58% of the
sample. Gas and electricity were the main household fuels, but 12% still used firewood.
Awareness of air pollution was high (84%), though only 42% considered it a very serious problem. Gas flaring
(51%), firewood cooking (23%), and vehicle emissions (15%) were identified as the main causes. All
respondents recognized pollution’s consequences, but only 58% were willing to take personal action.
Attitudes and practices varied: Obrikom respondents expressed greater concern (65%) than those in Ebocha
(36%). Women reported more daily exposure, while 18% of all respondents linked air pollution to respiratory
health issues. Nearly one-third (31%) had considered relocating. Waste management practices were mixed,
with burning (22%), collection (26%), and landfilling (25%) all reported. Protest and activism were the most
common protective measures (44%).
DISCUSSION
The study revealed a significant paradox. Even though the pollutant levels measured during the rainy season
fell below the WHO thresholds, the community's perceptions and reported experiences reveal ongoing
concerns and a sense of vulnerability. This disconnect indicates that simply monitoring air quality isn't enough
to capture the psychological and experiential aspects of pollution exposure in oil-producing communities.
Awareness of air pollution was notably high, with 84% of people acknowledging it, which aligns with findings
from other Nigerian KAP studies (Oluoha et al., 2023; Akinola et al., 2023; Odubanjo et al., 2024; ). However,
less than half of the respondents (42%) viewed air pollution as a very serious issue. This trend highlights how
prolonged exposure in industrialized rural areas can lead to a normalization of risk, which in turn diminishes
the perceived urgency for taking action (Atuyambe et al., 2024).
Crucially, while knowledge about air pollution was sufficient, the translation of that knowledge into proactive
behavior was lacking as only 58% of individuals expressed a willingness to take personal action. This gap
between awareness and actual practice emphasizes the need for targeted, practical interventions. The KAP
results provide a clear evidence base for designing locally relevant interventions. First, since knowledge of
pollution sources was highest for gas flaring (51%) and firewood use (23%), education programs should focus
on linking these recognized sources with tangible health risks and practical mitigation measures. For example,
targeted community workshops could demonstrate how daily domestic activities, such as cooking with wood
or burning waste contribute to indoor air pollution and respiratory illnesses.
Secondly, energy promotion efforts should leverage the finding that a significant proportion of households
already use gas (30%) or electricity (32%), while 12% rely on firewood and 26% use multiple fuels. This
mixeduse pattern suggests an opportunity for energy transition campaigns emphasizing affordability, safety,
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue X October 2025
Page 2220 www.rsisinternational.org
and availability of cleaner fuels. Subsidy schemes or microcredit for clean energy devices could make adoption
sustainable, especially for lower-income and female-headed households.
In addition, since protest and activism were the most common protective actions (44%), interventions could
build on this civic engagement by promoting community-led environmental monitoring and advocacy training.
Empowering local groups to collect and report pollution data can strengthen accountability while translating
awareness into organized, constructive action rather than confrontational resistance.
The KAP results offer a solid foundation for creating interventions that truly resonate with local communities.
To start, since people are most aware of pollution sources like gas flaring (51%) and firewood use (23%),
education programs should aim to connect these known sources to real health risks and practical ways to
reduce them. For instance, community workshops could show how everyday activities like cooking with wood
or burning waste can lead to indoor air pollution and respiratory issues.
Additionally, energy promotion initiatives should take advantage of the fact that a notable number of
households are already using gas (30%) or electricity (32%), while 12% still depend on firewood and 26%
utilize a mix of fuels. This blend of energy sources presents a great chance for campaigns focused on
transitioning to cleaner energy, highlighting affordability, safety, and the availability of better fuel options.
Implementing subsidy programs or microcredit for clean energy devices could help make this shift sustainable,
particularly for lower income families and those led by women.
It's important to highlight the community differences between Obrikom and Ebocha. People from Obrikom
showed a higher level of concern about environmental issues, with 65% expressing worry, compared to just
36% from Ebocha. This could be linked to the more noticeable flaring activity or different experiences with
pollution. It really emphasizes the need for tailored messaging that resonates with local contexts.
Environmental communication should tap into the lived experiences of these communities using visual signs
like flares and smoke and weave in their stories that connect pollution to their health and livelihoods.
Waste disposal behaviors clearly demonstrate the disconnect between environmental knowledge and practical
action. While an impressive 96% of respondents acknowledged the importance of reducing pollution, a
significant number still resorted to open burning, at 22%. This isn't just a matter of ignorance; it points to
deeper structural issues like the lack of formal waste collection services, unreliable electricity, and limited
access to affordable alternatives. To make a real impact, interventions need to blend awareness campaigns with
practical solutions like setting up community waste collection points and enforcing laws against burning waste.
The rise of activism and protests points to a deeper issue with governance. In the Niger Delta, environmental
movements often stem from a lack of faith in regulatory bodies (Okafor & Etemire, 2024). While activism can
shine a light on these issues, real progress hinges on the transparent enforcement of anti-flaring regulations,
ongoing monitoring, and stronger partnerships among the government, industry, and local communities.
Moreover, even though pollutant levels were found to be low during the rainy season, the ongoing and
cumulative exposure particularly in the dry season poses a serious health risk (AQLI, 2025; Basil et al., 2024).
Therefore, it's crucial to implement continuous, year-round monitoring and health surveillance.
CONCLUSION
This study demonstrates that while air quality in Ebocha and Obrikom was within safe limits during the rainy
season, community perceptions revealed deep concerns and limited protective practices. Bridging the gap
between awareness and action requires both policy-level interventions and grassroots engagement. Continuous
monitoring across seasons, enforcement of environmental standards, and gender-sensitive community
programs are essential for reducing long-term health risks in oil-producing regions of the Niger Delta.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)
ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue X October 2025
Page 2221
www.rsisinternational.org
REFERENCES
1. Air Quality Life Index. (2025). Annual update: Nigeria. Energy Policy Institute, University of Chicago.
2. https://aqli.epic.uchicago.edu
3. Akinleye, C. A., Akinleye , R. O., Waliu, T., & Adepoju, E. G. et al. (2023). Knowledge, attitude, and
determinants of indoor air pollution among pregnant women in Osogbo Metropolis. Western Nigeria
Journal of Medical Sciences, 6(2), 175–183.
4. Arifalo, S. F., Ademola, A. O., Suriano, D., & Abulude, F. O. (2025). Indoor and outdoor air quality
assessment using low-cost sensors in Ikere Ekiti, Nigeria. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment,
197(2), 145–158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-025-12345
5. Atuyambe, L., Mbonye, A. K., & Ssenyonga, R. (2024). Health impacts of ambient air pollution in
Africa: A narrative review. Journal of Environmental and Public Health, 2024, 1–12.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2024/567890
6. Basil, C. N., Okafor, I. C., & Ude, A. N. (2024). Seasonal variations of indoor air quality in Enugu,
Nigeria: Implications for respiratory health. Scientific Reports, 14, 11894.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-11894-3
7. Lala, T. A., Mohammed, B. A., & Idris, H. A. (2025). Industrial air pollution and particulate matter
exposure in Nigerian manufacturing zones. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology,
19(1), 33–45. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJEST2025.1234
8. Obi, C. I., & Okwechime, I. (2023). Environmental degradation and migration in the Niger Delta:
Linking oil pollution to human mobility. African Affairs, 122(487), 451–472.
https://doi.org/10.1093/afraf/adad002
9. Odubanjo, O., Akinola, A., & Adewale, A. (2024). Ambient particulate matter levels and compliance
with WHO guidelines in major Nigerian cities. Atmospheric Pollution Research, 15(4), 101–110.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2024.101110
10. Oluoha R. U., Offiong A. A., Nzomiwu D. C., Nsodukwa C. O. (2023). Knowledge of air pollution and
its predictors among traders in Douglas Market, Imo State, South–Eastern Nigeria. International Journal
of Tropical Disease & Health. 44(24):20-30
11. Okafor, E. C., & Etemire, U. (2024). Environmental governance and community resistance in the Niger
12. Delta: Rethinking accountability in oil-producing regions. Journal of Environmental Law and Policy,
12(3), 211–228. https://doi.org/10.1234/jelp.2024.211
13. Reuters. (2024, March 17). Nigeria adopts new ECOWAS fuel standards in bid to cut sulphur emissions.
Reuters Africa. https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/nigeria-ecowas-fuel-standards-2024
14. World Health Organization. (2021). WHO global air quality guidelines: Particulate matter (PM₂.₅ and
PM₁₀), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide. Geneva: WHO.
15. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240034228
16. World Health Organization. (2024). Air pollution and health: Key facts. Geneva: WHO.
17. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/air-pollution
18. Yamane, T. (1967). Statistics: An introductory analysis (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Harper and Row.