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ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue X October 2025

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The Impact of School Infrastructure on Student Academic

Performance in Sarawak, Malaysia: A Review

Wan Fadillah Bin Wan Ahmad

DBA Candidate

Faculty of Business, UNITAR International University, Malaysia

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2025.1210000230

Received: 20 October 2025; Accepted: 28 October 2025; Published: 15 November 2025

ABSTRACT

This review synthesizes findings on key indicators which lead to positive educational outcomes in

upgraded school facilities in Sarawak, Malaysia. It aspires to develop a feasible evaluative framework

trying to fill the gap in the literature concerning the impact of physical school environments on

educational attainment, as well as how we currently measure that impact. In this respect, the review aims

to systemize the information on the nexus between educational infrastructure and achievement,

establishing evaluative framework parameters, key performance indicators, contrasting assessment

techniques, and addressing the particularities of Sarawak, Malaysia. This review incorporated various

quantitative, qualitative, and mixed approaches and designed studies in Malaysia and other comparable

developing contexts, particularly focusing on the impact of school facilities on educational outcomes, the

role of the socioeconomic environment, and different administrative school management theories. There

is a significant positive relationship between the upgraded physical facilities in school and the educational

outcomes, with the mediating factors including student motivation and student satisfaction. This review

also illustrates the comprehensive approaches which integrate the physical, environmental, and

pedagogical elements with managerial frameworks. Most importantly, this study underscores the

importance of customizing such frameworks in tune with the socioeconomic and cultural realities of the

locality. Cross-sectional study designs, variable validation of frameworks, and the underrepresentation of

psychosocial elements are some limitations to consider. By integrating the findings, the review illustrates

the multifaceted nature of the relationship between infrastructure and educational outcomes and the

importance of strategic planning and involvement of stakeholders. The review thus contributes to

developing a practically applicable, context-sensitive framework for evaluating educational outcomes

post-infrastructure changes. For Sarawak and comparable settings, this has considerable implications for

policy, school administration, and focused actions.

Keywords: academic, infrastructure, indicator, performance, Sarawak

INTRODUCTION

Equitable access to quality education in Sarawak, Malaysia, needs to contend with one fundamental

problem, the extensive problem of dilapidated infrastructure in schools. Sarawak is a large state and it has

a high number of poorly-maintained schools. The condition of the educational and physical learning

environments has transitioned from one of logistical concern to a foundational consideration in the

attainment of a state's developmental goals with respect to educational outcomes and human capital

(Barrett, Ambasz, Shmis, & Ustinova, 2019). This paper illustrates the impact of poorly maintained

school infrastructure on student performance, educational inequity, and teacher productivity in Sarawak,

to underline the demonstrated need and the impact of state intervention.

Academic research shows that a learner’s surroundings and learning outcomes are linked and that poor

learning environments make educational attainment more difficult (Barrett, Ambasz, Shmis, & Ustinova,

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)

ISSN No. 2321-2705 | DOI: 10.51244/IJRSI |Volume XII Issue X October 2025

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2019) (Cumbicus, Suquilanda, & Maza, 2025) (Ha, Busari, & Nordin, 2022) The quality of school

infrastructure is a determinant of the quality of education offered. Poor school infrastructure negatively

impacts students’ health, attendance, motivation, and learning. In Sarawak, the spatial and structural

school infrastructure inequities are glaring, as a significant number of schools have been classified as

broken, and needing major repairs. The impact of the physical school infrastructure on learning and

educational outcomes is tangible. Research from settings like Sarawak, Malaysia have shown that better

classroom conditions, including improved sanitation, electricity, and teaching materials, are linked to

better educational outcomes, including higher test scores, reduced student absenteeism, and decreased

school dropout rates (Yangambi, 2023) (Yue & Selvaratnam, 2025).

The scale of the infrastructure challenges is evident from local data, 1505 schools in dilapidated condition

(News, 2023). In 2024 and 2025, government statements and media reports estimated that hundreds of

schools in Sarawak, Malaysia were in a state of disrepair and required repairs or rebuilding, intervention

supported by new federal and state funding. For instance, media reports in Mid-2024 mentioned over 555

schools in the state were in a state of disrepair, which motivated the Government of Malaysia to allocate

and pledge to refurbish or rebuild many of the schools (Reporters, 2024) (Lorenzo Isaac, 2025). The

pledged funding came from federal funding and state redevelopment projects. These pledged funding and

school refurbishing projects were designed to make the school safer, in addition to creating a better

learning environment (Reporters, 2024). Why does school infrastructure directly impact school

performance? Simple utilities like water and electricity, infrastructure health and safety, and the state of

school facilities, have an impact on student attendance, as poor classroom conditions like leaky roofs or

dim lighting directly impact classroom interruptions (Abdullah, 2025).

For the following reasons, the value of improved infrastructure cannot be overemphasized. Improved

infrastructure increases teacher satisfaction, improving retention rates, and service effectiveness. The

availability of staff resources, space, and adequately equipped learning materials are powerful motivators.

The availability of enriched science laboratories, adaptable libraries, and other resources such as

dependable electricity and information and communication technology facilitates the implementation of

more effective novel instructional strategies that promote critical thinking and superior examination

results. Improved infrastructure positively influences learning outcomes and is more pronounced in value

in developing regions, as research demonstrates the value of improved infrastructure while controlling for

socioeconomic conditions (Kasdiah, Amdan, & Naldo, 2024).

Upgrading infrastructure in and of itself is usually ineffective. Teacher training, relevant curriculum,

community participation, and scheduled routine maintenance are necessary supportive activities.

Addressing infrastructure inadequately, especially in rebuilding situations, losing alignment with

educational and pedagogical needs, and redesigning without structured long-term maintenance can easily

lead to resource wastage (Barrett, Ambasz, Shmis, & Ustinova, 2019). Local media has featured the

Sarawak state government focus on development initiatives for school infrastructure in Sarawak,

Malaysia. Combined with management support for the schools, the anticipated development is promising.

Scalable efforts of this magnitude will be necessary in capital development to improve educational value

and student achievement advocacy (Meraw & Tuah, 2025) (Louis, 2025).

Research on key indicators of successful student academic performance in schools with infrastructure

improvements has emerged as a critical area of inquiry due to its direct impact on educational quality and

equity. The evolution of this field reflects growing recognition of the role that physical learning

environments play in shaping student outcomes, with early studies emphasizing strategic planning and

facility management (Ha, Busari, & Nordin, 2022) (Purba, 2024), followed by more recent investigations

into classroom conditions and ergonomic factors (Norazman N. , Che-Ani, Hussain, J., & Ismail, 2021)

(Latip, et al., 2024). The practical significance is underscored by data linking infrastructure quality to

academic achievement, motivation, and well-being, highlighting the need for targeted investments to

foster conducive learning environments (Jamshaid, Zaheer, Mukhtar, Baber, & Roohi, 2024) (Magwaga

& Kikechi, 2024). Globally, disparities in infrastructure contribute to unequal educational opportunities,

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)

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making this research vital for policy and practice, especially in regions like Sarawak, Malaysia, where

educational development is ongoing (Obioma, 2023) 2023) (Mahajan & Rajagopal, 2024).

Despite extensive research on the influence of school facilities and socioeconomic factors on academic

performance, significant knowledge gaps remain. Prior studies have often examined parental

socioeconomic status and physical facilities separately or partially, with limited focus on their combined

effects within specific local contexts (Werang, et al., 2024) (Magwaga & Kikechi, 2024) (Yangambi,

2023). Moreover, while infrastructure quality is acknowledged as important, there is a lack of

comprehensive frameworks that integrate strategic planning, facility management, and classroom

environment assessments to evaluate educational outcomes holistically (Mardiyah, Herawati, & Ali,

2025) (Nurafni, Sriwardona, & Rianawati, 2025) (Lahagu, Waruwu, Laia, & Harefa, 2024). Controversies

persist regarding the relative weight of infrastructure versus pedagogical factors in driving student

success, with some findings emphasizing teacher competence and leadership as mediators (Mukaromah,

Werdiningsih, & Daryono, 2024) (Surianshah, 2022). The absence of localized, practical assessment

models impedes effective resource allocation and policy formulation, potentially perpetuating educational

inequities (Hasyim, 2025) (Fanani, 2023).

This review constructs a conceptual framework linking strategic educational planning, physical

infrastructure quality, and student academic performance, grounded in theories of educational

management and environmental ergonomics (Ha, Busari, & Nordin, 2022) (Norazman N. , Che-Ani, Mat

Jusoh Hussain, & Wan Ismail, 2021) (Latip, et al., 2024). It defines key constructs such as classroom

condition indices, strategic facility management, and academic achievement metrics, elucidating their

interrelationships. This framework supports the development of an integrated assessment tool tailored to

Sarawak’s educational context, aligning infrastructure improvements with measurable student outcomes

(Mardiyah, Herawati, & Ali, 2025) (Istakri, Sofyan, & Ismail, 2024)) (Siregar & S, 2021).

The purpose of this systematic review is to synthesize existing evidence on the indicators of successful

academic performance in schools undergoing infrastructure enhancements in Sarawak, Malaysia, and to

develop a practical framework for assessing educational outcomes. By addressing identified gaps, this

study aims to inform policymakers, educators, and administrators on optimizing infrastructure

investments to maximize student achievement and equity (Ali, 2025) (Ling, 2024). The review employs a

comprehensive literature blending methodology, incorporating quantitative and qualitative studies from

diverse educational settings. Inclusion criteria focus on research addressing infrastructure, academic

performance, and assessment frameworks, while analytical strategies emphasize thematic integration and

conceptual mapping. Findings are organized to elucidate key indicators, management strategies, and

assessment approaches relevant to Sarawak’s schooling system (Mith & Zalez, 2025) (Khan, et al., 2025).

PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF THE REVIEW

Statement of Purpose

The aim of this paper is to analyze the current research on significant indicators of student academic

success in schools that have experienced infrastructure redevelopment in Malaysia and others region. It

seeks to establish a practical framework for evaluating educational results, thereby synthesizing existing

knowledge regarding the impact of infrastructural improvements on academic achievement and

identifying effective assessment frameworks suited to this context. This review holds significance as it

highlights the vital link between physical learning environments and student performance, an increasingly

important issue for educational policy and practice in developing areas such as Sarawak, Malaysia. By

integrating evidence and methodologies, the report intends to contribute to the creation of a practical,

contextually relevant framework that can assist educators, administrators, and policymakers in assessing

and enhancing educational outcomes following infrastructure upgrades especially in Sarawak, Malaysia.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC INNOVATION (IJRSI)

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Objectives

a) Examine the relationship between school infrastructure improvements and student academic

performance in Malaysia focus in Sarawak, Malaysia and others region.

b) Compare existing evaluation frameworks for educational outcomes in schools with improved

physical school facilities.

c) Identify and compile essential predictors for achieving positive academic outcomes in schools that

have undergone improvements to their physical environments.

d) Examine new approaches to evaluating the relationship between infrastructure and educational

outcomes across different contexts.

e) Analyze the barriers and situational variables that affect the impact of infrastructure educational

improvements in Sarawak, Malaysia.

METHODOLOGY OF LITERATURE SELECTION

Transformation of Query

To ensure that the literature search was both comprehensive and manageable, I divided the general

research question into a series of smaller, specific questions. This methodical approach not only deepens

the comprehensiveness of the literature search but aids in pinpointing relevant research in the

development of the study's framework. The following were the transformed queries that the research

question generated:

a) Key indicators of successful student academic performance in schools with infrastructure

improvements in Sarawak, Malaysia. Develop a practical framework for assessing educational

outcomes;

b) What are the broader implications of educational infrastructure on student academic success, and

what diverse assessment frameworks exist to evaluate educational outcomes in various contexts?

c) What innovative assessment methodologies can be employed to evaluate the impact of educational

infrastructure improvements on student academic performance in Sarawak, Malaysia, and how can

these be integrated into a practical framework for educational outcomes?

d) What innovative assessment frameworks can effectively evaluate student academic performance in

schools with improved infrastructure in Sarawak, Malaysia, considering local educational challenges

and outcomes?

Screening and Identifying Additional Relevant Papers

This study carried out thematic analysis. As noted in Braun and Clark (Braun & Clarke, 2006), thematic

analysis is a basic qualitative technique for finding, describing, and interpreting “themes” within a

dataset. This method is particularly useful for methodically managing a large body of literature. The

selected papers were systematically coded to discern the fundamental findings. This facilitated the

refinement of primary themes, including the direct predictive influence of infrastructure and its

motivational indirect pathway.

We then run each of the transformed queries from researchgate.net with the applied Inclusion &

Exclusion Criteria to retrieve a focused set of candidate papers, and we found 112 relevant papers.

Publication from 2017-2025 only. The subsequent steps involve a detailed review of the identified

literature to ascertain the most relevant studies that align with our research objectives and criteria.

Using Backward & Forward Citation Chaining, when we look at a primary research article, we carefully

check its references to find earlier studies that it builds upon. This helps us ensure that we don’t miss

important foundational work. We also look for newer research articles that cite the main paper we’re

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examining. This allows us to see how the field has evolved and what new discussions, replications, and

advancements in methods have come from those findings.

A total of 94 additional papers were found during this process. This method not only enriches the

literature review process but also helps in uncovering seminal works that have shaped the field of

educational infrastructure research.

Relevance Scoring and Sorting

We compiled a total of 206 candidate papers, with 112 sourced from search queries and 94 from citation

chaining. We then ranked these papers based on their relevance, ensuring that the most important studies

appeared at the top of our final list. Among the 206 papers we reviewed, 50 were deemed highly relevant

to our research question.

Table 1: Papers searching using Inclusion & Exclusion Criteria

Step

Action and Outcome

Details

Start

Paper Collection

Procedure begins.

This defines the scope as identifying relevant academic

literature.

Sources of

Papers

Papers were identified

using two main methods.

This ensures comprehensive coverage and mitigates bias

from relying on a single search method.

Initial

Collection

Papers were collected

from the two sources.

Search Queries: Identified 112 Papers. Citation Chaining:

Identified 94 Papers.

Combination

Papers from both

sources were combined.

This resulted in the Total Candidate Papers = 206.

Ranking

Papers were ranked by

Relevance.

An initial quality/relevance assessment based on title,

abstract, or methodology.

Final Review

Review for Alignment

with Research Question.

This is the crucial selection step, ensuring the content

matches the specific research focus ("The Impact of School

Infrastructure on Student Academic Performance in

Sarawak, Malaysia").

Final

Selection

Highly Relevant Papers

Selected.

The final dataset for analysis was 50 papers.

Figure 1: Flowchart of searching the relevant papers

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Table 1: Search strings for the research

Search String

Purpose

Search String

Rationale

Core Localized

Impact

"School Infrastructure" AND

"Academic Performance" AND

"Sarawak"

The most specific query, ensuring results

are directly relevant to all three core

concepts and the specific location.

Broader Malaysian

Context

"School Facilities" AND "Student

Achievement" AND "Malaysia"

Broadens the search to include the national

context, which often contains adaptable or

parallel insights (as noted in paper 1) and

uses synonymous terms.

Focus on

Quality/Condition

"Classroom condition" OR

"Physical status" AND "Learning

outcomes" AND "Malaysia"

Focuses on the quality aspect of

infrastructure, using a different set of

outcome synonyms to capture varied

literature.

Management and

Policy

"Facility management" OR

"Infrastructure finance" AND

"Education Quality" AND

"Malaysia"

Captures papers discussing the systemic and

financial aspects that directly influence

infrastructure quality and provision (as

noted in papers 9, 12, 16).

Sarawak and

Facilities

"Sarawak secondary schools" AND

("Facilities" OR "Infrastructure")

AND ("Performance" OR

"Outcomes")

Uses the specific context mentioned in the

collected papers (paper 1) to target highly

relevant local studies.

Once the 50 papers were selected, the thematic analysis proceeded by extracting key findings and

grouping them into themes (Braun & Clarke, 2006) (Wan Ahmad, 2025), as demonstrated in the

summarized tables.

Table 2: (Braun & Clarke, 2006)

Step

Action and Connection to Provided Data

1. Familiarization

Reading the selected papers (represented by the summary tables) to understand the

core arguments, context, and methodology.

2. Initial Coding

Assigning descriptive codes based on the findings (e.g., "Facility Correlation,"

"Contextual Adaptability," "Implementation Feasibility").

3. Theme

Generation

Grouping similar initial codes to form broader themes (e.g., combining codes about

correlation, predictive value, and impact into one theme).

4. Review and

Refinement

Checking if the themes are consistent and address the research question. For

example, ensuring themes distinguish between direct impact and mediating

factors4.

RESULT AND FINDING

Finding of the Studies

This section maps the research landscape of the previous literature on key indicators of successful student

academic performance in schools with infrastructure improvements. We develop a practical framework

for reaching educational outcomes, focusing on diverse geographic contexts, primarily in Malaysia and

comparable developing regions. The studies employ a range of quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-

methods approaches to evaluate the influence of physical infrastructure, socioeconomic factors, and

management strategies on academic success. This comparative analysis is relevant to the research

questions as it synthesizes key indicators, assessment frameworks, and contextual challenges, providing a

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foundation for developing a practical, adaptable framework for educational outcome assessment in

Sarawak, Malaysia.

Table 3:Table of summary the research landscape of the previous literature on key indicators

Study

Indicator

Validity

Framework

Comprehensivene

Contextual

Adaptability

Impact

Measureme

nt Precision

Implementati

on Feasibility

(Ha, Busari,

& Nordin,

2022)

Strategic

planning

correlates

strongly with

student

performance

Focuses on

strategic planning

and academic

outcomes

Tailored to

Sarawak

secondary

schools

Uses

quantitative

correlation

and

regression

analysis

Practical for

school

principals with

moderate

resources

(Norazman

N. , Che-

Ani,

Hussain, J.,

& Ismail,

2021)

Classroom

condition

indicators

validated by

users and

experts

Holistic CCI

scheme covering

space,

environment,

teaching quality

Designed for

Malaysian

secondary

schools,

adaptable

locally

Employs RI

index and

mixed

methods for

precise

weighting

Requires

technical

expertise but

feasible for

school admins

(Jamshaid,

Zaheer,

Mukhtar,

Baber, &

Roohi,

2024)

Basic facility

availability

linked to

academic

progress

Emphasizes

facility impact on

learning growth

Contextualiz

ed in global

and

developing

country

settings

Uses

hypothesis

testing with

participant

responses

Practical but

limited by

convenience

sampling

constraints

(Werang, et

al., 2024)

Physical

facilities and

parental

socioeconomi

c status

significantly

predict

performance

Integrates

socioeconomic and

facility variables

Focus on

Indonesian

context with

parallels to

Sarawak

Statistical

analysis with

high R²

values for

precision

Implementatio

n depends on

policy and

resource equity

(Qadeer,

Shahid, &

Ullah, 2024)

Strong

correlation

between

facilities,

satisfaction,

and

achievement

Combines physical

and classroom

environment

factors

Applicable to

Malaysian

secondary

schools

Mixed-

methods

with

statistical

and thematic

analysis

Feasible with

stakeholder

involvement

and data

collection

(Latip, et

al., 2024)

Lighting and

noise directly

affect

performance

via motivation

Models physical

ergonomics and

motivation

mediation

Higher

education

context in

Malaysia,

adaptable

Uses

correlational

and

mediation

analysis

Requires

survey tools

and

motivational

assessment

(Farid,

Setiawan,

Solichin,,

Noviana, &

Sari, 2024)

Infrastructure

quality

positively

impacts

achievement

Structural model

includes economic

factors

Indonesian

high school

context,

relevant to

Sarawak

SEM-PLS

provides

robust

impact

measurement

Feasible with

moderate

sample sizes

and data access

(Magwaga

Facility

Focus on specific

Kenyan

Pearson

Practical with

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& Kikechi,

2024)

availability

strongly

correlates with

academic

scores

facility types and

their effects

public

secondary

schools,

transferable

insights

correlation

with high

significance

standard

survey and

observation

methods

(Kumari,

2024)

Infrastructure

finance

correlates with

academic

achievement

Mixed-methods

including finance

and outcome

indicators

Primary

education

focus,

adaptable to

Sarawak

Quantitative

and

qualitative

data

integration

Implementatio

n requires

financial data

and

stakeholder

input

10.

(Mardiyah,

Herawati, &

Ali, 2025)

Program

indicators

effectively

measure

educational

success

Covers input,

process, output,

and outcome

indicators

General

educational

management,

adaptable

Emphasizes

SMART

criteria for

indicator

validity

Practical for

policy and

school-level

application

11.

(Purba,

2024)

Strategic

planning of

facilities

enhances

educational

quality

Comprehensive

planning

framework for

infrastructure

Indonesian

context with

adaptable

strategic

stages

Literature-

based

framework

with

empirical

validation

Feasible with

stakeholder

participation

and planning

tools

12.

(Ali, 2025)

Infrastructure

central to

educational

reform

success

Policy innovation

framework

integrating equity

and technology

Global

developing

country

focus,

adaptable

Case study

and policy

analysis for

impact

insights

Implementatio

n requires

cross-sector

collaboration

13.

(Nurafni,

Sriwardona,

Rianawati,

2025)

Effective

facility

management

improves

education

quality

Addresses

management

challenges and

strategies

Urban-rural

disparities

considered

Qualitative

data with

thematic

analysis

Feasible with

collaborative

school

community

efforts

14.

(Soleha, et

al., 2025)

Facility

management

strategies

improve

learning

effectiveness

Examines

planning,

procurement,

maintenance,

evaluation

Indonesian

schools with

local

stakeholder

involvement

Thematic

qualitative

analysis

Practical with

coordinated

management

and evaluation

15.

(Nasir,

2025)

Facility

management

linked to

education

quality

improvement

Descriptive

qualitative study

with procedural

focus

State Islamic

school

context,

adaptable

Observationa

l and

interview

data

Feasible

despite funding

limitations

16.

(Hasyim,

2025)

Policy and

stakeholder

roles critical

for equitable

infrastructure

Qualitative study

on policy

implementation

challenges

Emphasizes

local context

and

community

involvement

Thematic

analysis of

policy and

practice

Implementatio

n depends on

inclusive

governance

17.

(Yusron,

2025)

Facility

optimization

Community-based

planning and

Local

Indonesian

Qualitative

coordination

Practical with

school

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enhances

learning

quality

procurement

approach

school

context

and

supervision

data

leadership

engagement

18.

(Putra,

Mahmudah,

Baswedan,

2025)

Infrastructure

planning

essential for

effective

education

Qualitative study

on needs analysis

and budgeting

Elementary

school focus,

adaptable

Interview-

based data

analysis

Feasible with

school-level

planning

processes

19.

(Cindy,

Sugiyono, &

Usman,

2023)

Student needs

and

motivation

influence

facility

optimization

Quantitative

regression analysis

of influencing

factors

Vocational

high school

context

Statistical

significance

testing

Practical with

survey

instruments

and data

analysis

20.

(Mukaromah

Werdiningsi

h, &

Daryono,

2024)

Infrastructure

mediates

leadership and

teacher impact

on learning

Quantitative

survey with

mediation analysis

Secondary

school

context in

Indonesia

PLS-SEM

for

mediation

effect

precision

Feasible with

teacher and

principal

participation

21.

(Lahagu,

Waruwu,

Laia, &

Harefa,

2024)

Facilities

significantly

boost student

learning

motivation

Qualitative study

with interviews

and questionnaires

Indonesian

junior high

school

context

Descriptive

qualitative

data

Practical with

school-level

data collection

22.

(Obioma,

2023)

Infrastructure

crucial for

educational

quality

improvement

Reviews variables

affecting quality

and equity

Broad

educational

system focus

Policy and

literature

synthesis

Implementatio

n requires

systemic

investment

23.

(Istakri,

Sofyan, &

Ismail,

2024)

Facility

management

impacts

learning

quality

Qualitative case

study with

stakeholder

interviews

Indonesian

junior high

schools

Observationa

l and

documentati

on data

Feasible with

school

leadership

commitment

24.

(Mith &

Zalez, 2025)

Localized QA

practices

improve rural

education

outcomes

Qualitative case

study with

stakeholder

perspectives

Rural

education

systems

Multi-

method

qualitative

data

Practical with

contextual

adaptation

25.

(Arteaga-

Alcívar,

2024)

Educational

reforms affect

learning

outcomes

internationally

Systematic review

of reform impacts

Global

comparative

focus

Mixed-

methods

literature

synthesis

Implementatio

n varies by

context and

policy

26.

(Fanani,

2023)

Facilities and

infrastructure

urgent for

high school

quality

Library research on

facility standards

and roles

General high

school

education

Document

and literature

analysis

Policy and

government

role

emphasized

27.

(Yangambi,

2023)

Infrastructure

impacts

Quantitative

survey in

Kinshasa

secondary

Questionnair

e-based data

Practical with

continuous

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student

learning and

performance

developing country

schools

analysis

infrastructure

improvement

28.

(Lismayati,

Subiyantoro,

& Amaliyah,

2023)

Infrastructure

management

affects

educational

program

success

Qualitative study

in Islamic boarding

schools

Indonesian

pesantren

context

Interviews,

observation,

documentati

Feasible with

proactive

maintenance

and HR

empowerment

29.

(Anuar, et

al., 2024)

Infrastructure

limitations

affect

academic and

psychological

outcomes

Mixed-methods

with large

university sample

Higher

education

science and

technology

students

Correlation

and path

analysis

Implementatio

n requires

integrated

campus

planning

30.

(Cumbicus,

Suquilanda,

& Maza,

2025)

School

infrastructure

significantly

influences

academic

achievement

Mixed-methods in

Ecuadorian high

school

Latin

American

context

Surveys,

interviews,

observation

Practical with

targeted

infrastructure

improvements

31.

(Thorat,

2025)

Competency-

based

assessments

improve

student

engagement

and skills

Mixed-methods

with educators and

students

Multi-

institutional

educational

settings

Statistical

significance

testing

Feasible with

clear

competency

frameworks

32.

(Meylani,

2024)

Modern

assessment

methods

enhance

educational

evaluation

Systematic

literature review

comparing

approaches

Broad

educational

contexts

Qualitative

and

quantitative

synthesis

Implementatio

n requires

technology and

training

33.

(Surianshah,

2022)

Class size

reduction has

limited effect

achievement

gaps

Quantitative

analysis of TIMSS

data in Malaysia

Malaysian

secondary

schools

Econometric

and

regression

analysis

Policy

implications

for resource

allocation

34.

(Munir,

2018)

Learning

space

attributes

relate to

satisfaction

and

performance

Pilot survey with

PLS-SEM analysis

Malaysian

university

academic

buildings

Statistical

reliability

and validity

testing

Feasible with

survey and

SEM tools

35.

(Ling,

2024)

Data-driven

innovation

model

supports

education

transformation

Case study in

Malaysian primary

school

Primary

education

with data

analytics

Exam results

and

diagnostic

test analysis

Practical with

ongoing

localized

innovation

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36.

(Yunita,

Fadiah,

Lainatusshif

a, &

Maulida.,

2023)

Infrastructure

critical for

effective

learning

environments

Literature review

on facilities and

conditions

General

educational

settings

Qualitative

synthesis

Emphasizes

prioritizing

infrastructure

development

37.

(Akimi,

Matore,

Hadi,

Ibrahim, &

Majid, 2024)

SCORE

model

assesses

manipulative

skills

development

Theoretical

analysis of

curriculum and

resources

Malaysian

secondary

STEM

education

Curriculum

and teacher

preparation

review

Feasible with

strategic model

adoption

38.

(Mahajan &

Rajagopal,

2024)

Infrastructure

development

shapes

learning and

innovation

Book chapter on

multifaceted

infrastructure roles

Global

educational

contexts

Case

examples

and

challenges

Implementatio

n requires

comprehensive

planning

39.

(Khan, et

al., 2025)

Educational

reforms

improve

student

outcomes

longitudinally

Mixed-methods

longitudinal study

Multi-

country

educational

systems

Standardized

tests and

qualitative

data

Requires

sustained

intervention

and evaluation

40.

(Yang,

2024)

Achievement

pathways

enhance

course

evaluation in

OBE

Quantitative and

qualitative course

evaluation methods

Higher

education

with OBE

frameworks

Multivariate

and AHP

analysis

Practical with

formative and

summative

integration

41.

(Siregar &

S, 2021)

Facility

management

optimizes

learning

quality

Emphasizes

maintenance and

service standards

General

educational

institutions

Qualitative

management

focus

Feasible with

community

involvement

42.

(Latip, et

al., 2024)

Facility

management

affects

educational

quality

improvement

Qualitative study

on planning and

mobilization

Indonesian

junior high

school

Observation

and

interview

data

Practical with

organizational

coordination

43.

(Alvarado

& Galigao,

2024)

Curriculum

implementatio

effectiveness

varies globally

Qualitative

comparative

research

Multi-

continental

educational

systems

Literature

review and

stakeholder

data

Implementatio

n depends on

resources and

training

44.

(Arbeni, et

al., 2024)

Evaluation

analysis

supports

educational

quality

improvement

Multidimensional

assessment

methods

Broad

educational

contexts

Quantitative

and

qualitative

data

integration

Feasible with

technology and

policy support

45.

(Leif &

Loftness,

Biophilic

interventions

Case studies and

stakeholder

K-12 schools

with retrofit

Mixed-

methods

Practical with

stakeholder

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2024)

improve

health and

performance

surveys

strategies

with impact

and

affordability

analysis

engagement

46.

(Dechavez,

2024)

Student and

educational

factors

influence

academic

success

Descriptive-

correlational study

Varied

educational

settings

Multiple

regression

analysis

Feasible with

targeted

support

systems

47.

(Belmonte,

Bove,

D'Inverno,

& Modica,

2017)

Infrastructure

spending

improves

standardized

test scores

Quasi-

experimental

design in Italy

High school

context

Instrumental

variable and

test score

analysis

Practical with

targeted capital

investment

48.

(Kamaludin,

2023)

Facilities

standards less

significant in

school

performance

Confirmatory

factor analysis in

Indonesia

Public

elementary

schools

Structural

equation

modeling

Suggests focus

shift to

curriculum and

teacher

development

49.

(Maila, et

al., 2024)

Infrastructure

distribution

affects

participation

and quality

Data analysis and

case studies

Educational

development

context

Process and

impact

evaluation

Practical with

efficient

resource

allocation

50.

(Chyhrina,

Slipchuk,

Deichakivsk

a, Deneha,

Hetmanenko

, 2024)

Innovative

approaches

enhance

educational

frameworks

Synergistic and

systemic analysis

Global

educational

systems

Data

monitoring

and outcome

analysis

Feasible with

continuous

curriculum

updates

Finding analysis based on literature;

a) Indicator Validity

Over 20 studies found that physical infrastructure and facility availability significantly predict

student academic success, often with strong statistical correlations and regression analyses (Ha,

Busari, & Nordin, 2022) (Werang, et al., 2024) (Magwaga & Kikechi, 2024). Several studies

highlight the mediating role of motivation and satisfaction in linking infrastructure to

performance, enhancing indicator validity (Latip, et al., 2024) (Lahagu, Waruwu, Laia, & Harefa,

2024) (Anuar, et al., 2024). Contrasting findings exist regarding the direct impact of some

indicators, such as class size or socioeconomic factors, suggesting the need for multifactorial

models (Surianshah, 2022) (Kamaludin, 2023).

b) Framework Comprehensiveness

Approximately 15 studies developed or reviewed frameworks incorporating multiple dimensions,

including physical, environmental, socioeconomic, and pedagogical factors (Norazman N. , Che-

Ani, Mat Jusoh Hussain, & Wan Ismail, 2021) (Mardiyah, Herawati, & Ali, 2025)) (Mukaromah,

Werdiningsih, & Daryono, 2024). Holistic models often integrate input, process, output, and

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outcome indicators, aligning with SMART criteria for effective assessment (Mardiyah, Herawati,

& Ali, 2025) (Soleha, et al., 2025) (Yang, 2024). Some frameworks emphasize strategic planning

and management as critical components alongside physical infrastructure (Ha, Busari, & Nordin,

2022) (Purba, 2024) (Nurafni, Sriwardona, & Rianawati, 2025).

c) Contextual Adaptability

Many studies tailor methodologies to local educational challenges, cultural factors, and resource

constraints, particularly in Malaysian and Indonesian contexts (Ha, Busari, & Nordin, 2022)

(Norazman N. , Che-Ani, Mat Jusoh Hussain, & Wan Ismail, 2021) (Werang, et al., 2024). Rural

and disadvantaged settings receive focused attention, with localized quality assurance and

stakeholder involvement enhancing adaptability (Hasyim, 2025) (Mith & Zalez, 2025)

(Dechavez, 2024). Cross-national comparisons reveal the importance of contextualizing reforms

and infrastructure investments to specific socio-economic and cultural environments (Arteaga-

Alcívar, 2024) (Alvarado & Galigao, 2024).

d) Impact Measurement Precision

Quantitative methods such as SEM, PLS-SEM, regression, and correlation analyses are widely

used to achieve precise impact measurement (Werang, et al., 2024) (Farid, Setiawan, Solichin,,

Noviana, & Sari, 2024) (Mukaromah, Werdiningsih, & Daryono, 2024). Mixed-methods

approaches combining qualitative validation with quantitative weighting improve sensitivity and

accuracy (Norazman N. , Che-Ani, Mat Jusoh Hussain, & Wan Ismail, 2021) (Qadeer, Shahid, &

Ullah, 2024) (Anuar, et al., 2024). Some studies employ innovative tools like RI indices,

achievement pathways, and biophilic retrofit assessments for nuanced measurement (Norazman

N. , Che-Ani, Hussain, J., & Ismail, 2021) (Yang, 2024) (Leif & Loftness, 2024).

e) Implementation Feasibility

Feasibility varies with resource availability, technical expertise, and administrative capacity; many

frameworks are designed for practical application in schools with moderate resources (Ha, Busari,

& Nordin, 2022) (Qadeer, Shahid, & Ullah, 2024) (Nasir, 2025). Collaborative management,

stakeholder engagement, and policy support are critical enablers of successful implementation

(Nurafni, Sriwardona, & Rianawati, 2025) (Hasyim, 2025) (Siregar & S, 2021). Challenges

include funding limitations, data collection demands, and the need for professional development,

which some studies address with strategic (Nasir, 2025) (Latifa, Gusliana, Ngarifin, & Mubarok,

2024) (Chyhrina, Slipchuk, Deichakivska, Deneha, & Hetmanenko, 2024).

Critical Analysis and Synthesis

The literature provides a solid and in-depth evaluation of the relationship between the enhancement of

school facilities and the achievement of students, particularly within the context of Sarawak, Malaysia,

and comparable regions. One of the noted strengths remains the variation in the methodological

approaches, from case studies, and quantitative surveys, to qualitative approaches. This range offers a

greater appreciation of the varying influences that school facilities may have on educational outcomes.

However, the literature is still vulnerable to a strong reliance on cross-sectional studies and self-reported

accounts, which greatly hinders the literature’s causal claims. Also, while a number of studies propose

frameworks for the evaluation of educational outcomes, a greater number of studies have demonstrated

the lack of contextual fit and the lack of implement ability. The narrative accounts are still silent on the

influence of psychosocial factors and systemic factors that are central, and crucial, to be the absence of

longitudinal and mixed methods studies that seek to validate and refine educational evaluation

frameworks that are practical.

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Table 4: Strength vs Weakness of the aspects evaluate from research papers

Aspect

Strengths

Weaknesses

Methodological

Diversity

The body of research employs a range

of methodologies including quantitative

surveys, mixed methods, and

qualitative case studies, allowing for

triangulation of data and richer insights

into the infrastructure-performance

nexus (Norazman N. , Che-Ani, Mat

Jusoh Hussain, & Wan Ismail, 2021)

(Qadeer, Shahid, & Ullah, 2024)

(Anuar, et al., 2024). This diversity

supports a more holistic understanding

of how physical environments

influence academic outcomes.

Despite methodological variety, many

studies rely heavily on cross-sectional

designs and convenience sampling,

limiting the ability to establish causality

and generalize findings beyond specific

contexts (Jamshaid, Zaheer, Mukhtar,

Baber, & Roohi, 2024) (Latip, et al.,

2024) (Magwaga & Kikechi, 2024). The

frequent use of self-reported measures

introduces potential biases and reduces

data robustness (Anuar, et al., 2024).

Conceptual

Frameworks for

Assessment

Several studies contribute to the

development of practical frameworks

for assessing educational outcomes

post-infrastructure improvements, such

as the Classroom Condition Index

(CCI) and competency-based

assessment models, which integrate

physical, environmental, and

pedagogical indicators ( (Norazman N.

, Che-Ani, Hussain, J., & Ismail, 2021)

(Thorat, 2025) (Yang, 2024). These

frameworks emphasize specificity and

contextual relevance, enhancing their

applicability.

Frameworks often lack empirical

validation in diverse settings, and some

are narrowly focused on particular spaces

(e.g., classrooms) or educational levels,

limiting their scalability (Norazman N. ,

Che-Ani, Hussain, J., & Ismail, 2021)

(Thorat, 2025). There is also a tendency

for frameworks to emphasize physical

indicators over psychosocial or

motivational factors, which are critical

for comprehensive assessment (Latip, et

al., 2024) (Lahagu, Waruwu, Laia, &

Harefa, 2024).

Influence of

Physical

Infrastructure on

Academic

Performance

Strong positive correlations between

improved physical facilities and student

academic achievement are consistently

reported, highlighting the importance of

adequate classrooms, laboratories, and

learning resources (Jamshaid, Zaheer,

Mukhtar, Baber, & Roohi, 2024)

(Magwaga & Kikechi, 2024)

(Yangambi, 2023). Studies also note

the role of infrastructure in fostering

conducive learning atmospheres that

enhance student satisfaction and

motivation (Qadeer, Shahid, & Ullah,

2024) (Lahagu, Waruwu, Laia, &

Harefa, 2024).

The extent to which infrastructure alone

drives academic success remains unclear

due to confounding socioeconomic and

contextual variables, such as parental

status and economic factors (Werang, et

al., 2024) (Farid, Setiawan, Solichin,,

Noviana, & Sari, 2024). Some research

indicates that infrastructure

improvements must be coupled with

effective management and pedagogical

strategies to realize full benefits

(Mukaromah, Werdiningsih, & Daryono,

2024) (Siregar & S, 2021).

Role of Motivation

and Psychosocial

Factors

Emerging evidence underscores

motivation as a mediator between

physical ergonomics and academic

performance, suggesting that

environmental factors influence

learning indirectly through student

engagement (Latip, et al., 2024)

(Lahagu, Waruwu, Laia, & Harefa,

2024). This highlights the need to

Few studies systematically integrate

motivational or psychosocial variables

into infrastructure assessment

frameworks, resulting in an incomplete

picture of factors influencing academic

outcomes (Norazman N. , Che-Ani,

Hussain, J., & Ismail, 2021) (Yunita,

Fadiah, Lainatusshifa, & Maulida.,

2023). The complexity of these

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consider affective dimensions alongside

physical improvements.

interactions is often underexplored,

limiting practical guidance for

interventions.

Strategic

Management and

Policy Implications

Research highlights the importance of

strategic planning, efficient

management, and stakeholder

engagement in maximizing the

advantages of infrastructure. Various

models support the use of participatory

and data-informed strategies. (

(Mardiyah, Herawati, & Ali, 2025)

(Purba, 2024) (Nurafni, Sriwardona, &

Rianawati, 2025) (Hasyim, 2025).

Policy innovations focusing on

equitable funding and community

engagement are identified as critical for

sustainable improvements (Ali, 2025)

(Hasyim, 2025).

Challenges such as budget constraints,

bureaucratic hurdles, and disparities

between urban and rural schools persist,

impeding the consistent implementation

of infrastructure improvements (Nurafni,

Sriwardona, & Rianawati, 2025) (Istakri,

Sofyan, & Ismail, 2024) (Fanani, 2023).

There is a lack of longitudinal studies

assessing the long-term impact of

management strategies on educational

quality.

Contextual and

Socioeconomic

Considerations

Several studies acknowledge the

influence of local socioeconomic

conditions and contextual factors on the

effectiveness of infrastructure

interventions, advocating for tailored

approaches sensitive to regional

disparities (Werang, et al., 2024)

(Farid, Setiawan, Solichin,, Noviana, &

Sari, 2024) (Mith & Zalez, 2025)

(Hasyim, 2025). This recognition

supports the development of more

equitable educational policies.

Despite recognition of context, many

frameworks and studies do not

sufficiently operationalize or measure

these factors, limiting their ability to

address equity comprehensively (Kumari,

2024) (Kamaludin, 2023). The interplay

between infrastructure, socioeconomic

status, and academic outcomes requires

deeper investigation to inform targeted

interventions.

Limitations in Data

Quality and

Generalizability

The literature benefits from large

sample sizes in some studies and the

use of validated instruments, enhancing

reliability ( (Magwaga & Kikechi,

2024) (Anuar, et al., 2024). Mixed-

methods designs provide nuanced

insights into infrastructure impacts.

However, reliance on self-reported data,

limited geographic scope, and small or

convenience samples in several studies

reduce external validity (Ha, Busari, &

Nordin, 2022) (Jamshaid, Zaheer,

Mukhtar, Baber, & Roohi, 2024) (Anuar,

et al., 2024). The predominance of short-

term studies restricts understanding of

sustained effects of infrastructure

improvements on academic performance.

THEMATIC REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The body of research concerning student academic achievement in schools that have undergone

infrastructure enhancements highlights a number of common themes. Significant findings underscore the

importance of physical facilities and classroom settings in creating effective learning environments,

which are closely linked to student performance. Various assessment methods are employed, combining

both conventional and modern techniques to accurately evaluate educational results. Furthermore,

socioeconomic elements and effective management strategies interact with infrastructural upgrades,

affecting fair access to and the quality of education, especially in varied regional landscapes like Sarawak,

Malaysia.

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Table 5: Theme developed based on studies

Theme

Appears

Theme Description

Impact of Physical

Infrastructure on

Academic Performance

23/50

Papers

Numerous studies establish a positive relationship between

improved school infrastructure and enhanced academic

achievement, highlighting how well-maintained physical facilities

such as classrooms, laboratories, and sanitation significantly

contribute to better student outcomes across diverse contexts

including Malaysia, Indonesia, Kenya, and others (Norazman N. ,

Che-Ani, Hussain, J., & Ismail, 2021) (Jamshaid, Zaheer,

Mukhtar, Baber, & Roohi, 2024) (Werang, et al., 2024) (Farid,

Setiawan, Solichin,, Noviana, & Sari, 2024) (Magwaga & Kikechi,

2024) (Yangambi, 2023). Some research also notes the mediating

effects of psychological and environmental factors in this

relationship (Anuar, et al., 2024).

Socioeconomic Factors

and Educational Equity

15/50

Papers

Parental socioeconomic status influences access to educational

resources and supports, affecting academic performance alongside

school infrastructure quality. Studies reveal disparities in student

achievement linked to socioeconomic backgrounds, stressing the

need for equitable policies and targeted resource allocation to

bridge educational gaps (Werang, et al., 2024) (Farid, Setiawan,

Solichin,, Noviana, & Sari, 2024) (Dechavez, 2024). This theme

underscores intersectionality between infrastructure and social

factors.

Assessment

Frameworks and

Educational Outcome

Measurement

14/50

Papers

Literature highlights varied assessment models ranging from

traditional standardized testing to competency-based and formative

assessments tailored for modern learning environments. Effective

frameworks incorporate measurable indicators aligned with

SMART criteria, enabling comprehensive evaluation of

educational programs and outcomes (Mardiyah, Herawati, & Ali,

2025) (Thorat, 2025) (Meylani, 2024) (Yang, 2024). Innovations

in classroom condition indices also contribute to nuanced physical

environment assessments (Norazman N. , Che-Ani, Mat Jusoh

Hussain, & Wan Ismail, 2021)

Strategic Management

and Optimization of

Educational Facilities

13/50

Papers

Effective management of educational facilities, including

planning, procurement, maintenance, and stakeholder

involvement, is crucial for sustaining infrastructure benefits and

maximizing learning quality. Research identifies challenges such

as budget constraints and human resource limitations and

recommends participatory, data-driven approaches for facility

optimization (Purba, 2024) (Nurafni, Sriwardona, & Rianawati,

2025) (Nasir, 2025) (Latifa, Gusliana, Ngarifin, & Mubarok,

2024). Context-sensitive strategies enhance the impact of

infrastructure on learning.

Classroom Environment

and Physical

Ergonomics

9/50

Papers

Studies focusing on classroom environmental quality emphasize

factors like lighting, noise, space management, and ergonomic

design as pivotal for student motivation and performance. Physical

comfort and supportive teaching and learning environments shape

academic success by mediating student engagement and

satisfaction (Norazman N. , Che-Ani, Hussain, J., & Ismail, 2021)

(Qadeer, Shahid, & Ullah, 2024) (Latip, et al., 2024) (Munir,

2018). This theme bridges infrastructure with experiential aspects

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of learning settings.

Educational Policy and

Infrastructure-Led

Reform

8/50

Papers

Policy innovations promoting infrastructure development as a

central element in educational reform are discussed, advocating for

equitable funding models, community involvement, and

integration of digital and climate-resilient infrastructure. Such

reforms aim to strengthen inclusivity and quality education in

developing regions (Ali, 2025) (Hasyim, 2025) (Obioma, 2023)

(Arteaga-Alcívar, 2024). The effectiveness of reform

implementation is tied to localized contextual adaptation.

Student Motivation and

Satisfaction Related to

Facilities

7/50

Papers

Positive correlations between availability and quality of physical

facilities and student motivation and satisfaction have been

observed, linking these factors to improved academic outcomes.

Motivational dimensions are affected by facility adequacy and the

psychosocial climate of schools, suggesting infrastructure

investments also support affective learning domains (Jamshaid,

Zaheer, Mukhtar, Baber, & Roohi, 2024) (Qadeer, Shahid, &

Ullah, 2024) (Lahagu, Waruwu, Laia, & Harefa, 2024).

Challenges in

Infrastructure

Implementation and

Maintenance

6/50

Papers

Research identifies barriers such as funding limitations,

bureaucratic hurdles, and disparities between urban and rural

schools that impede adequate infrastructure provision and

maintenance. These challenges affect the sustainability and

equitable distribution of educational resources, underscoring the

need for strategic governance and community engagement

(Nurafni, Sriwardona, & Rianawati, 2025) (Istakri, Sofyan, &

Ismail, 2024) (Lismayati, Subiyantoro, & Amaliyah, 2023) (Latifa,

Gusliana, Ngarifin, & Mubarok, 2024).

Integration of

Technology and

Innovation in

Educational

Infrastructure

5/50

Papers

Incorporating modern technologies and data-driven models into

school infrastructure and assessment practices facilitates

educational transformation. Innovations include intelligent

classroom condition indices and digital tools for continuous

evaluation and feedback, enhancing the responsiveness of

educational systems to student needs (Norazman N. , Che-Ani,

Hussain, J., & Ismail, 2021) (Ling, 2024) (Chyhrina, Slipchuk,

Deichakivska, Deneha, & Hetmanenko, 2024). This theme

highlights the evolution towards smart infrastructure.

Contextual and Regional

Variations in

Infrastructure Impact

4/50

Papers

Studies reveal that the effectiveness of infrastructure

improvements varies by regional, cultural, and socioeconomic

contexts. Localized quality assurance frameworks and tailored

facility management respond to unique needs of rural and

developing areas, influencing the generalizability of findings and

the design of assessment tools (Ha, Busari, & Nordin, 2022) (Mith

& Zalez, 2025) (Mahajan & Rajagopal, 2024) (Dechavez, 2024).

Contextual factors are critical in framework applicability.

The thematic analysis identified four key themes: 1) Infrastructure as a Direct Predictor of academic

outcomes; 2) Mediation through Motivational Factors (e.g., lighting, noise); 3) Contextual Relevance to

Malaysian Schools; and 4) Strategic Governance and Finance (e.g., policy, funding). These themes

directly address the impact of infrastructure relevant to Sarawak.

Chronological Review of Literature

The literature on the impact of school infrastructure improvements on student academic performance and

related assessment frameworks has evolved significantly over recent years. Early research primarily

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focused on establishing the direct relationship between physical facilities and academic outcomes,

emphasizing the importance of adequate and conducive learning environments. Subsequent studies

introduced strategic planning, management, and policy implications for optimizing infrastructure use

while exploring innovative assessment models and motivational factors mediating academic success. The

most recent works concentrate on integrating advanced assessment frameworks, equity-oriented policy

execution, and localized quality assurance practices to develop practical, context-sensitive educational

evaluation systems.

Agreement and Divergence Across Studies

Across the reviewed literature, there is strong consensus on the positive influence of improved school

infrastructure on student academic performance, motivation, and satisfaction. Many studies emphasize the

multidimensional nature of assessing educational outcomes, incorporating physical, social, and economic

factors. However, divergences arise regarding the magnitude of infrastructure impact and the role of

contextual variables such as socioeconomic status and cultural factors. Some research highlights

limitations in existing assessment frameworks and calls for more localized, adaptable models tailored to

the specific challenges of regions like Sarawak, Malaysia.

Table 6: Summary of Agreement and Divergence Across Studies

Comparison

Criterion

Studies in Agreement

Studies in Divergence

Potential Explanations

Indicator Validity

Several studies confirm

that key physical

indicators such as

classroom condition,

availability of facilities,

and ergonomic factors

are reliable predictors of

academic success

(Norazman N. , Che-Ani,

Hussain, J., & Ismail,

2021) (Jamshaid, Zaheer,

Mukhtar, Baber, &

Roohi, 2024) (Magwaga

& Kikechi, 2024)

(Yunita, Fadiah,

Lainatusshifa, &

Maulida., 2023).

Findings also highlight

motivation and student

satisfaction as valid

intermediary indicators

linking infrastructure to

performance (Qadeer,

Shahid, & Ullah, 2024)

(Lahagu, Waruwu, Laia,

& Harefa, 2024) (Latip,

et al., 2024).

Some studies find that

certain infrastructure

indicators do not strongly

relate to academic

performance or that

effects vary by context;

for example, one study

found non-significant or

negative correlations

between physical

facilities and student

achievement in some

settings (Werang, et al.,

2024) (Fanani, 2023)

(Kamaludin, 2023).

Variation could stem from

differences in

measurement tools,

educational levels studied

(primary, secondary,

higher education), or

socioeconomic and

cultural contexts

influencing indicator

relevance.

Framework

Comprehensiveness

Many frameworks

incorporate multiple

dimensions including

physical infrastructure

Some studies focus

narrowly on quantitative

physical infrastructure

metrics without

Divergence arises due to

research objectives—some

prioritize physical

assessment for

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quality, economic

factors, psychosocial

aspects (motivation,

satisfaction), and

instructional quality, as

seen in comprehensive

models like the

Classroom Condition

Index (CCI) and

integrated assessments

combining facilities and

socioeconomic variables

(Norazman N. , Che-Ani,

Hussain, J., & Ismail,

2021) (Werang, et al.,

2024) (Qadeer, Shahid,

& Ullah, 2024) (Latip, et

al., 2024) (Farid,

Setiawan, Solichin,,

Noviana, & Sari, 2024)

(Mukaromah,

Werdiningsih, &

Daryono, 2024)

integrating psychosocial

or contextual factors

(Yangambi, 2023)

(Anuar et al., 2024).

Others emphasize

management and strategic

planning aspects without

fully linking these to

measurable academic

outcomes (Nurafni,

Sriwardona, & Rianawati,

2025) (Purba, 2024)

(Nasir, 2025)

infrastructure design,

others emphasize

management or

educational process

measures, affecting

framework scope.

Contextual

Adaptability

There is agreement that

successful assessment

frameworks must be

adaptable to local

educational challenges,

cultural norms, and

resource constraints to be

effective, especially in

developing or rural

contexts such as

Sarawak, Malaysia or

regions in Indonesia and

Kenya (Norazman N. ,

Che-Ani, Hussain, J., &

Ismail, 2021) (Werang,

et al., 2024) (Nurafni,

Sriwardona, &

Rianawati, 2025)

(Hasyim, 2025) (Mith &

Zalez, 2025)

However, some standard

or global frameworks fail

to adequately

accommodate local

nuances, leading to

mismatches in

applicability or

effectiveness (Farid,

Setiawan, Solichin,,

Noviana, & Sari, 2024)

(Ali, 2025) (Arteaga-

Alcívar, 2024)

(Cumbicus, Suquilanda,

& Maza, 2025). Some

tools are designed for

broad application and

may overlook localized

environmental, social, or

cultural variables critical

in Sarawak (Norazman

N. , Che-Ani, Mat Jusoh

Hussain, & Wan Ismail,

2021)

Differences reflect the

tension between

developing universally

applicable tools and

tailoring to local realities.

Studies with local

qualitative insights tend to

advocate for

contextualization.

Impact

Measurement

Precision

Research employing

mixed methods and

advanced statistical

models (e.g., SEM, path

analysis) report precise

quantification of

infrastructure impacts on

Conversely, studies

relying on self-reported

or less rigorous data

collection have less

precise estimates and

sometimes conflicting

results regarding

Differences in

methodological rigor,

sample size, and data

quality influence

precision. Context

complexity and

multidimensionality of

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academic achievement,

often controlling for

socioeconomic variables

(Werang, et al., 2024)

(Latip, et al., 2024)

(Farid, Setiawan,

Solichin,, Noviana, &

Sari, 2024) (Anuar, et al.,

2024). Measurement

schemes like CCI

provide weighted

indicators enhancing

sensitivity to physical

environment changes

(Norazman N. , Che-Ani,

Hussain, J., & Ismail,

2021)

infrastructure impact

magnitude (Jamshaid et

al., 2024) (Yangambi,

2023) (Mendapat et al.,

2022). The complexity of

isolating infrastructure

effects from confounding

variables remains

challenging (Kamaludin,

2023).

educational outcomes

complicate impact

measurement.

Implementation

Feasibility

Many studies emphasize

frameworks designed

with feasibility in mind,

stressing simplicity,

stakeholder involvement,

and alignment with

school administrative

capacities, promoting

practical application in

resource-constrained

environments

(Norazman N. , Che-Ani,

Hussain, J., & Ismail,

2021) (Nurafni,

Sriwardona, &

Rianawati, 2025) (Nasir,

2025) (Hasyim, 2025)

(Lahagu, Waruwu, Laia,

& Harefa, 2024). The use

of validated, user-

friendly tools like

surveys and checklists

facilitates adoption.

Other research notes

challenges in actual

implementation due to

limited funding, human

resource constraints,

bureaucratic hurdles, and

gaps between policy and

practice, especially in

rural or under-resourced

schools (Purba, 2024)

(Hasyim, 2025) (Istakri,

Sofyan, & Ismail, 2024)

(Fanani, 2023) (Latifa,

Gusliana, Ngarifin, &

Mubarok, 2024). Some

propose sophisticated

assessment models that

may be difficult to

operationalize without

technical expertise

(Thorat, 2025) (Meylani,

2024).

Feasibility discrepancies

reflect differences in local

administrative capacity,

policy support, and

resource availability.

Studies with qualitative

insights highlight practical

obstacles often

underrepresented in

quantitative research.

THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

Theoretical Implications

The findings support with the theoretical understanding where school infrastructure quality is a significant

influence of student academic performance, supporting the Education Production Function theory which

mention that physical learning environments directly influence educational outcomes (Magwaga &

Kikechi, 2024) (Yangambi, 2023) (Belmonte, Bove, D'Inverno, & Modica, 2017). This parallel with

evidence showing that better in infrastructure correlate positively with academic achievement across all

location contexts.

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The role of socioeconomic driver specific to parental socioeconomic status, emerges as a critical mediator

in the relationship between infrastructure and academic success, focus on the complex interaction

between environmental and social determinants of learning (Werang, et al., 2024) (Dechavez, 2024). This

supports ecological models of education that emphasize multi-level influences on student outcomes.

The development and validation of specialized assessment frameworks, such as the Classroom Condition

Index (CCI), contribute to theoretical advancements by providing structured, multidimensional tools to

evaluate physical learning environments beyond traditional facility assessments (Norazman N. , Che-Ani,

Hussain, J., & Ismail, 2021). This enhances the understanding of infrastructure quality by including

space, environmental, and educational aspects.

Emerging research highlights the importance of student motivation and satisfaction as mediators between

physical ergonomics, infrastructure, and academic performance. This incorporation of motivational

theories into the discussion about infrastructure and performance implies that the effects of infrastructure

are, to some extent, indirect, operating through psychological and emotional channels (Latip, et al., 2024)

(Qadeer, Shahid, & Ullah, 2024).

The integration of strategic educational management theories with infrastructure planning emphasize the

importance of systematic, data-driven approaches to facility management, linking organizational theory

with educational outcomes (Purba, 2024) (Nurafni, Sriwardona, & Rianawati, 2025). This theoretical

supports comprehensive governance frameworks that treat infrastructure as an essential element of

educational quality.

Contrasting findings regarding the direct impact of infrastructure on academic performance in some

contexts challenge deterministic views and suggest the need for nuanced theoretical models that account

for contextual variability, resource allocation efficiency, and complementary factors such as teacher

quality and curriculum implementation (Werang, et al., 2024) (Kamaludin, 2023).

Figure 2: Sarawak Schools Infrastructure-Academic Performance Framework (The Author)

Practical Implications

Policymakers and educational administrators must focus on strategically improving school infrastructure,

specifically classrooms, laboratories, and other necessary facilities, as this yields considerable positive

impact on student academic achievements (Farid, Setiawan, Solichin,, Noviana, & Sari, 2024) (Magwaga

& Kikechi, 2024) (Yangambi, 2023). These developments are central to addressing equity in enhanced

and supportive learning environments.

The adoption of extensive, context-driven assessment frameworks, like the CCI, affords school

administrators the ability to monitor and improve classroom conditions systematically. As a result, this

supports the continuous improvement of physical-learning environments (Norazman N. , Che-Ani, Mat

Direct Pathway: A direct, measurable link

between the physical quality of infrastructure

and academic outcomes.

Indirect Pathway: Infrastructure quality

influences the learning environment and

student motivation, which then contributes to

academic performance

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Jusoh Hussain, & Wan Ismail, 2021). This straightforward device supports evidence-based facility

management.

Integrated policies on addressing socioeconomic disparities with infrastructure and supplementary

support for poor families yield educational inequity dividends reinforced border-crossing collaborations

between educational social welfare sectors (Werang, et al., 2024) (Dechavez, 2024).

To improve the infrastructure on learning quality in resource-poor environments, school leadership and

facility management must involve strategic, participatory, and efficient resource management (Purba,

2024) (Nurafni, Sriwardona, & Rianawati, 2025) (Nasir, 2025). School managers being trained and built

in capacity to pursue these initiatives is another need.

Improvements in physical infrastructure and classroom environments can lead to increased student

satisfaction and motivation and can indirectly enhance academic performance. This suggests that

investments in learning environments should also pay attention to ergonomic and psychosocial

dimensions (Qadeer, Shahid, & Ullah, 2024) (Latip, et al., 2024) (Lahagu, Waruwu, Laia, & Harefa,

2024).

Reforms in education and quality assurance frameworks should include infrastructure as a key component

so that physical improvements are made in tandem with innovations in curriculum and teaching methods.

This will help in maximizing learning outcomes (Mith & Zalez, 2025) (Arteaga-Alcívar, 2024). Such a

comprehensive approach will facilitate the sustainable development of education.

LIMITATIONS OF THE LITERATURE

Table 7: Table of limitations of the Literature across studies

Area of

Limitation

Description of Limitation

Papers which have limitation

Geographic

Bias

Many of the research on a particular area or a specific

country tends to create generalizability issues. This

concentration on certain boundary regions invariably

lowers the external validity of the findings and may

fail to capture the local particularities that may

determine the primary research question of academic

performance and the impacts of infrastructure.

(Ha, Busari, & Nordin, 2022)

(Werang, et al., 2024) (Farid,

Setiawan, Solichin,, Noviana,

& Sari, 2024) (Magwaga &

Kikechi, 2024) (Yangambi,

2023)

Small Sample

Sizes

The use of small and convenience samples still

remains a frequent methodological flaw that may lead

to loss of statistical power and weaker conclusions.

This, in turn, contributes to loss of reliability and

generalizability in drawing conclusions to the wider

population.

(Jamshaid, Zaheer, Mukhtar,

Baber, & Roohi, 2024)

(Mukaromah, Werdiningsih, &

Daryono, 2024) (Munir, 2018)

(Latip, et al., 2024)

Cross-Sectional

Design

The use of cross-sectional research design limits the

ability to draw any causal effects of the research

question on infrastructure and resultant academic

outcomes. Inability to address the time dimension

may also hinder assessing the impacts which may

play a defining role in education

(Kumari, 2024) (Khan, et al.,

2025) (Anuar, et al., 2024))

Limited

Contextual

Factors

The focus of research only on the physical aspects of

educational infrastructure, without considering the

distribution of relevant social, cultural, and policy

resources, will restrict the research in its potential

scope and skew the understanding of the real impact

(Werang, et al., 2024)

(Hasyim, 2025) (Farid,

Setiawan, Solichin,, Noviana,

& Sari, 2024) (Obioma, 2023)

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of infrastructure on educational outcomes.

Reliance on

Self-Reported

Data

Reliance on subjective self-reports regarding

academic achievement and satisfaction poses threats

to validity and objectivity of findings due to biases

such as social desirability and recall bias, thereby

affecting the accuracy of outcome evaluations.

(Qadeer, Shahid, & Ullah,

2024) (Farid, Setiawan,

Solichin,, Noviana, & Sari,

2024) (Anuar, et al., 2024)

Lack of

Longitudinal

Studies

Few longitudinal studies limit our understanding of

the prolonged impacts of positive changes to

infrastructure over time. Without longitudinal studies

tracking such changes, understanding the

sustainability and educational outcome evolution on

the backside of such interventions becomes difficult.

(Kumari, 2024) (Khan, et al.,

2025)

Narrow Focus

on Physical

Facilities

Many studies concentrating on educational

infrastructure fail to take into consideration equally

important educational inputs such as the quality of

teaching and other determinants of learning. This

limited focus on only physical infrastructure

constrains the comprehensive understanding of

drivers of educational achievement.

(Ha, Busari, & Nordin, 2022)

(Yunita, Fadiah, Lainatusshifa,

& Maulida., 2023)

(Kamaludin, 2023)

Inconsistent

Assessment

Frameworks

The absence of comparable assessment tools and

congruent study frameworks limits the understanding

and integration of findings across studies. This lack of

standardized variables and indicators limits effective

benchmarking and extensiveness of generalizations

across educational areas and contexts.

(Norazman N. , Che-Ani, Mat

Jusoh Hussain, & Wan Ismail,

2021) (Thorat, 2025) (Meylani,

2024)

Gaps and Future Research Directions

Table 6: Gap for future researcher to consider

Gap Area

Description

Future Research

Directions

Justification

Research

Priority

Longitudinal

validation of

infrastructure

impact

Most studies use

cross-sectional

designs limiting

causal inference on

infrastructure's

effect on academic

performance.

Conduct longitudinal

and experimental

studies in Sarawak

schools to track

academic outcomes

pre- and post-

infrastructure

improvements.

Longitudinal data are

essential to establish

causality and understand

sustained impacts of

infrastructure on student

success (Ha, Busari, &

Nordin, 2022) (Werang,

et al., 2024) (Khan, et al.,

2025).

High

Integration of

psychosocial

factors in

assessment

frameworks

Existing

frameworks focus

predominantly on

physical and

environmental

indicators,

neglecting

motivation and

psychosocial

mediators.

Develop and

empirically test

comprehensive

frameworks

incorporating

motivation,

satisfaction, and

psychosocial

variables alongside

physical

infrastructure

Motivation mediates the

relationship between

physical ergonomics and

performance, indicating

the need for holistic

assessment models

(Latip, et al., 2024)

(Lahagu, Waruwu, Laia,

& Harefa, 2024) (Anuar,

et al., 2024)

High

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metrics.

Contextual

adaptation of

assessment tools

Many frameworks

lack validation in

diverse local

contexts, especially

rural and resource-

limited Sarawak

schools.

Adapt and validate

existing assessment

schemes like CCI for

Sarawak’s unique

cultural,

socioeconomic, and

geographic

conditions.

Contextual factors

critically influence

framework applicability

and effectiveness,

requiring tailored tools

for local relevance

(Norazman N. , Che-Ani,

Hussain, J., & Ismail,

2021) (Hasyim, 2025)

(Mith & Zalez, 2025)

High

Multifactorial

models including

socioeconomic

variables

Limited integration

of socioeconomic

status and

infrastructure

variables in

predicting

academic

outcomes.

Design multifactorial

models that

simultaneously

analyze

infrastructure

quality, parental

socioeconomic

status, and school

management factors

in Sarawak.

Socioeconomic

disparities modulate

infrastructure impact on

achievement,

necessitating integrated

analytical approaches

(Werang, et al., 2024)

(Farid, Setiawan,

Solichin,, Noviana, &

Sari, 2024) (Dechavez,

2024)

High

Precision in

impact

measurement

methodologies

Variability in

measurement

precision due to

reliance on self-

reports and limited

use of advanced

statistical models.

Employ mixed-

methods with robust

quantitative

techniques (e.g.,

SEM, PLS-SEM)

combined with

qualitative validation

to enhance

measurement

accuracy.

Advanced modeling

improves sensitivity and

validity of impact

assessments, reducing

bias from self-reported

data (Norazman N. ,

Che-Ani, Mat Jusoh

Hussain, & Wan Ismail,

2021) (Farid, Setiawan,

Solichin,, Noviana, &

Sari, 2024) (Mukaromah,

Werdiningsih, &

Daryono, 2024)

Medium

Feasibility and

scalability of

assessment

frameworks

Some frameworks

require technical

expertise or

resources beyond

typical school

capacities in

Sarawak.

Develop user-

friendly, resource-

appropriate

assessment tools

with training

modules for school

administrators and

teachers in Sarawak.

Practical implementation

depends on resource

availability and

administrative capacity;

scalable tools increase

adoption (Ha, Busari, &

Nordin, 2022) (Qadeer,

Shahid, & Ullah, 2024)

(Nasir, 2025).

Medium

Long-term effects

of strategic

management on

infrastructure

outcomes

Lack of

longitudinal

studies assessing

how strategic

planning and

facility

management

influence

educational quality

Conduct longitudinal

evaluations of

strategic facility

management

interventions and

their sustained

effects on academic

performance.

Strategic management is

critical but underexplored

longitudinally;

understanding long-term

effects can guide policy

(Purba, 2024) (Nurafni,

Sriwardona, &

Rianawati, 2025) (Nasir,

2025)

Medium

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over time.

Equity-focused

infrastructure

policy

implementation

Insufficient

research on how

policy and

stakeholder

engagement affect

equitable

infrastructure

distribution in

Sarawak.

Investigate policy

implementation

processes and

stakeholder roles in

promoting equitable

infrastructure access,

focusing on

marginalized

communities.

Equity in infrastructure

access is vital for

reducing educational

disparities; policy

effectiveness depends on

inclusive governance

(Hasyim, 2025) (Obioma,

2023) (Maila, et al.,

2024)

High

Integration of

innovative

assessment

methodologies

Limited

application of

competency-based

and data-driven

assessment models

in infrastructure

impact studies.

Explore the

incorporation of

competency-based

assessments and

data-driven

innovation models to

evaluate educational

outcomes post-

infrastructure

upgrades.

Modern assessment

methods enhance

evaluation relevance and

support continuous

improvement aligned

with 21st-century skills

(Thorat, 2025) (Ling,

2024) (Yang, 2024)

Medium

10.

Addressing

funding and

resource

constraints in

infrastructure

improvements

Funding

limitations and

resource disparities

hinder consistent

infrastructure

upgrades and

maintenance.

Research cost-

effective

infrastructure

improvement

strategies and

sustainable funding

models tailored to

Sarawak’s economic

context.

Financial constraints are

a major barrier;

identifying sustainable

solutions is crucial for

long-term infrastructure

quality (Fanani, 2023)

(Nasir, 2025) (Chyhrina,

Slipchuk, Deichakivska,

Deneha, & Hetmanenko,

2024)

High

CONCLUSION

Research demonstrates that improvements to school facilities are likely to positively influence student

achievement, particularly in regions like Sarawak, Malaysia. This influence may stem from the school’s

infrastructure, including classrooms, laboratories, libraries, and the general learning environment, which

are particularly important in the construction of places that foster student participation, satisfaction, and

motivation, which promote learning. Nevertheless, one must remember that many factors contribute to the

achievement of the desired academic goals. Such factors include the socioeconomic environment,

managerial efficacy, and the teaching quality, which are perhaps more instrumental than the

improvements in the facilities in realizing the desired academic goals. The literature suggests that

improvements to facilities must take other factors into account to achieve improvements in learning

outcomes and that tailored managerial initiatives to improve educational quality and equity facilitate that

integration and strategy.

Educational outcome assessment frameworks that have been developed for schools with enhanced

infrastructure focus on multidimensional and integrated approaches that include physical, spatial, social,

and instructional parameters. Such frameworks focus on the integration of input, process, output, and

outcome dimensions to reflect the complexity of educational outcomes.

The application of practical assessment tools like classroom condition indices and competency-based

evaluations can be possible in resource-constrained settings as long as there is the right technical skill and

community involvement. However, there is still insufficient empirical validation and limited scalability of

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these frameworks, particularly in terms of the motivational and psychosocial components, which are

crucial in the performance-infrastructure relationship.

The design and success of infrastructure-related interventions as well as the evaluation frameworks are

strongly influenced by the socio-cultural context, including socioeconomic disparity, cultural practices,

and rural vs. urban settings. Localized quality assurance practices and inclusive policy frameworks

designed to address inequitable systemic configurations problem to offer the needed adjustments are

critical to ensuring that infrastructure investments conversion of educational resource are improves the

educational value. Higher precision in impact measurement can be achieved through more sophisticated

quantitative approaches like structural equation modeling and mixed methods that richly elaborate the

causal pathways and mediation relationships. However, constraints such as limited funding, expectation

of data collection, and the need for professional skill development continue as challenges that impede

widespread implementation.

The research, therefore, calls for more flexible and comprehensive strategies in the assessment of

educational outcomes. It is important to consider not only the quality of the infrastructure, but also the

management, the motivation of the students and teachers, and the socioeconomic factors that may exist.

The aim is to develop a contextually appropriate framework grounded in robust empirical research,

particularly in regions such as Sarawak. This can assist educators and policymakers in determining the

extent of the improvements to build infrastructure and the subsequent impact on students’ academic

outcomes. This suggests that future research ought to be directed toward the integration of a cross-

sectional and longitudinal mixed-method approach in order to improve educational outcomes, thereby

advocating the provision of quality infrastructure in Sarawak, Malaysia.

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