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Mediating Role of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in the
Relationship Between Trauma Exposure and Job Performance
Among Police Officers in Njoro Sub-County, Nakuru County, Kenya
Jones Omwenga1, Dr. Daniel A. Otwori2, PhD; Dr. Rose Otieno3
1Kisii University Department of Psychology
2Kisii University Management University of Africa
3Kisii University Nairobi, Kenya
DOI: https://doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2025.1210000307
Received: 05 November 2025; Accepted: 12 November 2025; Published: 20 November 2025
ABSTRACT
Police officers are frequently exposed to traumatic incidents that can impair their psychological wellbeing and
job performance. This study examined the mediating role of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in the
relationship between trauma exposure and job performance among police officers in Njoro Sub-County,
Nakuru County, Kenya. The objectives were to assess the extent of trauma exposure, evaluate its effect on job
performance, and determine whether PTSD mediates this relationship. The target population comprised 152
police officers drawn from all stations within Njoro Sub-County, from which a sample of 133 officers
participated, yielding an 87.5% response rate. A descriptive and inferential research design was adopted,
utilizing structured questionnaires as the primary data collection instrument. Quantitative data were analyzed
using descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, multiple regression, and structural equation modeling (SEM)
with the aid of SPSS and AMOS software. Results revealed that trauma exposure had a significant negative
effect on job performance and that PTSD significantly mediated this relationship. Officers with higher levels
of trauma exposure exhibited more severe PTSD symptoms such as irritability, hypervigilance, and emotional
exhaustion which in turn reduced decision-making ability, concentration, and interpersonal functioning. These
findings affirm that PTSD is a critical psychological pathway linking trauma to diminished performance in
policing contexts. The study recommends that the National Police Service institutionalize regular
psychological screening, counseling, and wellness programs to facilitate early detection and management of
PTSD. Moreover, post-incident debriefing, peer-support systems, and mentorship programs should be
integrated into operational protocols to enhance resilience and safeguard officers’ mental health and
performance. Future research should adopt longitudinal and comparative designs to establish causal
relationships and explore the moderating roles of organizational culture and gender in trauma response among
police officers.
Keywords: Job Performance, Kenya, Police Officers, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Trauma Exposure
INTRODUCTION
Policing continues to be among the most psychologically burdensome occupations, with routine exposure to
traumatic events such as acts of violence, accidents, death, and critical incidents posing risks to officers’
mental health and performance. A recent systematic review and meta-analysis by Ugwu and Idemudia (2025)
found that police officers worldwide experience elevated levels of burnout and post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD), with adverse effects on well-being, decision-making, and job effectiveness. Similarly, the Genetics of
PTSD in African Ancestry Populations (GPAA) Study reported that more than half of Kenyan adults have
been exposed to trauma, and approximately 21% have exhibited recent PTSD symptoms, with women being
disproportionately affected (“Kenya Faces Alarming PTSD Burden, GPAA Study,” 2025).
In Kenya, occupational stressors within law enforcement are exacerbated by chronic exposure to community
violence, inadequate psychosocial support, and cultural stigma surrounding mental health help-seeking (Ongeri
et al., 2015). For instance, research in Garissa County found that over 50% of police officers engaged in
security operations exhibited PTSD symptoms linked to traumatic field experiences (Ongeri et al., 2015).
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These findings underscore the pervasive nature of trauma exposure among Kenyan police officers and its
psychological implications for performance.
Despite growing recognition of PTSD as a major occupational hazard, little is known about the mechanisms
through which trauma exposure translates into diminished job performance, or how PTSD mediates this
relationship within sub-Saharan policing contexts. Understanding these pathways is critical to the design of
evidence-based interventions. Recent global research highlights that addressing PTSD through trauma-focused
psychological therapies can significantly enhance functioning among police personnel. Steensma-Young and
Berle (2025) found that trauma-focused interventions, including cognitive processing and prolonged exposure
therapy, effectively reduce PTSD symptoms and improve work-related functioning among officers. This
suggests that mitigating PTSD not only enhances officers’ mental health but also strengthens overall
institutional effectiveness and community safety (Ugwu & Idemudia, 2025; Steensma-Young & Berle, 2025).
Statement of the Problem
Kenyan police officers routinely encounter traumatic events arising from terrorism, armed robbery, communal
conflicts, and road traffic fatalities circumstances that make policing one of the most psychologically
demanding professions in the country. Recurrent exposure to such high-risk situations has been shown to
precipitate Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), depression, and burnout, ultimately impairing cognitive
and occupational functioning (Ongeri et al., 2015; Mutua & Wambua, 2023). The Genetics of PTSD in African
Ancestry Populations (GPAA) study recently reported that approximately 21% of Kenyan adults exhibit PTSD
symptoms, a rate comparable to those found in high-deployment police units, particularly in counties such as
Garissa and Mandera, where officers engage in counterterrorism and border operations (“Kenya Faces
Alarming PTSD Burden GPAA Study,” 2025; Wambugu et al., 2024).
However, while these studies underscore the high prevalence of PTSD among both the general population and
police officers, limited empirical research in Kenya has examined how PTSD affects job performance. Most
local investigations have focused on prevalence rates or the correlates of mental health outcomes (Ongeri et al.,
2015; Wambugu et al., 2024), rather than exploring the mechanisms through which trauma influences officers’
work behavior and effectiveness. For instance, Tijer and Kiprotich (2023), in their study Effects of Mental
Health on Performance of Public Servants in Kenya: A Case of Police Officers in Nakuru Town, reported a
moderate association between PTSD and job performance but did not test for mediation effects statistically.
This gap in the Kenyan literature mirrors global trends where PTSD is recognized as a mediating factor
between trauma exposure and performance deficits in policing contexts (Papazoglou & Tuttle, 2020; Violanti
et al., 2023). International evidence demonstrates that PTSD symptoms such as hypervigilance, intrusive
thoughts, and emotional dysregulation interfere with attention, judgment, and interpersonal functioning
(Steensma-Young & Berle, 2025). Yet, without understanding the mediating mechanism in local contexts,
interventions in Kenya risk addressing surface symptoms rather than the underlying causal pathways.
Accordingly, there is a pressing need to investigate the mediating role of PTSD in the relationship between
trauma exposure and job performance among police officers in Kenya, focusing particularly on under-
researched sub-counties such as Njoro in Nakuru County. Findings from such a study will provide empirical
insights necessary for designing targeted psychosocial interventions, strengthening occupational health
policies, and improving police operational effectiveness
Objectives of the Study
The study sought to:
i. Examine the effect of trauma exposure on job performance among police officers in Njoro Sub-County.
ii. Determine the mediating effect of PTSD on the relationship between trauma exposure and job performance.
Significance of the Study
This study is significant on theoretical, practical, and policy grounds.
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Theoretical Significance
The research extends current understanding of occupational mental health by empirically testing the mediating
role of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in the relationship between trauma exposure and job
performance. While previous studies have established correlations between trauma and performance, few have
explored the underlying psychological mechanisms explaining this relationship in an African policing context.
By employing structural equation modeling (SEM), the study advances theoretical models linking trauma
exposure, psychopathology, and occupational outcomes, thereby enriching the literature on trauma-informed
policing and occupational stress theory.
Practical Significance
Police officers operate in highly stressful environments characterized by violence, critical incidents, and
constant exposure to life-threatening situations. Understanding how trauma translates into impaired
performance through PTSD symptoms provides a basis for developing targeted interventions that promote
resilience and psychological wellbeing. The findings will help the National Police Service (NPS), mental
health practitioners, and police leadership design evidence-based psychosocial support programs such as
trauma debriefing, counseling, and peer-support systems tailored to the Kenyan policing environment.
Policy Significance
The study’s results will provide empirical evidence to inform occupational health and safety policies within the
National Police Service. Recommendations arising from the findings can guide the institutionalization of
routine psychological screening, post-incident counseling, and mental health education as part of police
wellness initiatives. Policymakers and administrators will thus be able to strengthen the operational framework
for mental health management and workforce performance within law enforcement agencies.
Academic Significance
The study contributes to the growing body of African scholarship on trauma psychology, occupational health,
and policing studies. It provides a localized model of how PTSD mediates trauma exposure effects on
performance, which can serve as a reference for comparative and longitudinal research in other counties or
among different security agencies.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
This study is grounded primarily in the Conservation of Resources (COR) Theory (Hobfoll, 1989) and
supplemented by the Job Demands–Resources (JD-R) Model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007) and the Trauma
Theory (Figley, 1995). These frameworks collectively provide a comprehensive understanding of how trauma
exposure influences job performance through the mediating mechanism of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
(PTSD).
The three theories collectively provide a coherent foundation for understanding how trauma exposure
translates into reduced job performance among police officers. The Conservation of Resources (COR) Theory
explains why PTSD develops following trauma specifically, through the loss or depletion of critical
psychological and emotional resources such as stability, confidence, and resilience. The Job Demands–
Resources (JD-R) Model clarifies how excessive job demands, such as continuous exposureto traumatic
events, interact with limited personal and organizational resources to produce strain and performance decline.
Finally, the Trauma Theory elucidates what psychological processes namely PTSD symptoms like intrusive
memories, hypervigilance, and emotional dysregulation—mediate the relationship between trauma exposure
and impaired job performance. Together, these theoretical perspectives form the basis of the study’s proposed
mediating model, illustrating that the impact of trauma on police officers’ performance primarily operates
through the onset and severity of PTSD Together, these theories underpin the proposed mediating model tested
in this study.
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Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework (see Figure 1) illustrates the hypothesized relationships among trauma exposure,
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), and job performance.
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework
Trauma Exposure (IV)
│
▼
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (MV)
│
▼
Job Performance (DV)
The conceptual framework of this study demonstrates the interrelationship between trauma exposure, Post-
Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), and job performance among police officers. Trauma exposure, the
independent variable, refers to the extent and severity of distressing incidents that officers encounter in their
line of duty, such as violent crimes, fatal accidents, and armed confrontations. Continuous exposure to such
traumatic events often overwhelms an officer’s coping mechanisms and psychological resilience, creating
vulnerability to mental health problems, particularly PTSD.
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) serves as the mediating variable in this framework. It represents the
psychological aftermath of trauma, marked by symptoms such as intrusive memories, emotional numbness,
hypervigilance, and avoidance behavior. These symptoms disrupt concentration, emotional control, and
interpersonal relations, which are essential for effective job performance. The dependent variable, job
performance, encompasses the overall ability of police officers to execute their duties efficiently, make sound
decisions, solve problems, and work collaboratively.
The framework posits that trauma exposure has both a direct and indirect influence on job performance.
Directly, repeated exposure to traumatic situations may cause fatigue, stress, and reduced motivation.
Indirectly, trauma leads to PTSD, which further diminishes cognitive and emotional functioning, thereby
lowering performance levels. In summary, PTSD mediates the relationship between trauma exposure and job
performance meaning that the adverse effects of trauma on police officers’ work outcomes primarily operate
through the development and severity of PTSD symptoms.
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
The study adopted a descriptive and inferential research design, integrating both correlational and mediation
analysis approaches to examine the interrelationships among trauma exposure, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
(PTSD), and job performance. This design was selected because it enables the quantification of relationships
between variables while allowing for statistical testing of causal pathways through mediation (Hayes, 2022).
Similar research designs have been widely applied in contemporary occupational health psychology studies
assessing mental health outcomes among police officers and first responders (Papazoglou et al., 2023; Ugwu &
Idemudia, 2025).
Target Population and Sampling
The target population comprised 152 police officers stationed across all operational posts and divisions within
Njoro Sub-County, Nakuru County, Kenya. Stratified random sampling was employed to ensure proportional
representation of ranks (constables, corporals, sergeants, and Officer Commanding Stations). From this
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population, 133 officers participated, yielding an 87.5% response rate, which exceeds the 70% threshold for
robust survey research (Bryman, 2023).
Sampling procedures aligned with recent studies emphasizing representative inclusion of both operational and
supervisory officers to capture variation in exposure and psychological responses (Kumar et al., 2024; Atwoli
et al., 2025).
Data Collection Instruments
Data were collected using a structured self-administered questionnaire divided into four major sections:
demographic characteristics, trauma exposure, PTSD symptoms, and job performance indicators. Trauma
exposure was assessed using an adapted version of the Critical Incident History Questionnaire (CIHQ),
originally developed to capture the frequency and perceived severity of exposure to critical events in policing
(Weiss et al., 2022). This tool has been successfully employed in recent law enforcement studies to quantify
exposure to incidents such as shootings, violent confrontations, and fatalities. PTSD symptoms were measured
using the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5), a 20-item standardized instrument that evaluates symptom
severity across the four DSM-5 clusters: intrusion, avoidance, negative alterations in cognition and mood, and
hyperarousal (Bovin et al., 2022). The PCL-5 has demonstrated robust psychometric validity and cross-cultural
applicability in both military and policing populations (Weathers et al., 2023).
Job performance was assessed using a modified version of the Individual Work Performance Questionnaire
(IWPQ), which evaluates three dimensions of work behavior: task performance, contextual performance, and
counterproductive work behavior (Koopmans et al., 2023). The instrument has been widely validated for
public service and policing contexts, offering reliability in measuring behavioral and attitudinal aspects of
occupational efficiency. Prior to full data collection, the questionnaire was pretested among 15 police officers
from an adjacent sub-county to ensure clarity, face validity, and contextual appropriateness. Reliability
analysis produced Cronbach’s alpha coefficients exceeding 0.80 across all subscales, confirming strong
internal consistency in line with psychometric standards recommended by Tavakol and Dennick (2022).
Data Processing and Analysis
Quantitative data were analyzed using SPSS (Version 29) and AMOS (Version 28) software. Descriptive
statistics (means, frequencies, and standard deviations) summarized demographic and variable distributions.
Inferential analysis employed Pearson correlation to examine bivariate associations among trauma exposure,
PTSD, and job performance. The Baron and Kenny (1986) four-step mediation procedure was initially used to
assess indirect effects, followed by bootstrapped Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to confirm the
mediating role of PTSD (Hayes, 2022; Memon et al., 2023).
SEM was selected due to its robustness in simultaneously estimating direct and indirect effects while
controlling for measurement error (Hair et al., 2023). Model fit was assessed using standard indices, including
Chi-square/df, Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), and Root Mean Square Error of
Approximation (RMSEA), following contemporary psychometric conventions (Hu & Bentler, 2023).
RESULTS & DISCUSSION
Response Rate
The study targeted 152 respondents (147 police officers + 5 Officers in Charge), of whom 133 fully
participated, giving an overall response rate of 87.5%. This exceeded the commonly accepted benchmark of
70% (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003) and indicates an adequate level of engagement. Full participation by all
Officer Commanding Stations (OCSs) enhanced the representativeness of supervisory perspectives.
Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
The study involved 133 police officers, of whom nearly half (48.4%) were aged between 31–40 years, while
12.5% were 30 years or younger and 10.9% were above 50 years. Males represented approximately 69.3% of
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the respondents, with females constituting 30.7%. In terms of service experience, more than 70% of
participants had served for over 11 years, indicating substantial exposure to cumulative occupational trauma.
Regarding education, the majority had attained secondary or college-level education, while a smaller group
possessed university qualifications. The distribution of ranks showed that lower and mid-level officers such as
Constables, Corporals, and Sergeants comprised most of the respondents, reflecting the operational core of the
police service.
These demographic characteristics are particularly significant, as prior research has shown that factors such as
age, rank, and years of service influence both the development of PTSD symptoms and overall job
performance. For instance, Ugwu and Idemudia (2024) in their meta-analysis on Burnout and PTSD in Police
Officers (SpringerLink) reported that officers with longer service periods may either exhibit resilience due to
professional adaptation or heightened stress from cumulative exposure. Similarly, Akoth, Njiru, and Mbwayo
(2023) in a Nairobi-based study published in IOSR Journals found that younger officers under 30 were more
vulnerable to PTSD symptoms, emphasizing the role of age as a moderating factor in psychological outcomes
among police personnel.
Descriptive and Correlation Results
Descriptive analysis indicated that respondents reported moderate to high levels of trauma exposure, primarily
involving violent incidents, accident scenes, and critical policing operations. Common PTSD symptoms
included hypervigilance, intrusive recollections, emotional exhaustion, and avoidance behaviors, consistent
with prior global policing studies. Job performance levels varied considerably, with officers exhibiting higher
PTSD symptoms tending to score lower on work efficiency, concentration, and interpersonal engagement.
These findings suggest that elevated trauma exposure and PTSD symptomatology may jointly compromise
optimal job performance within law enforcement contexts.
Correlation analysis revealed statistically significant relationships among the study variables (Table 1). Trauma
exposure demonstrated a strong positive association with PTSD symptoms (r = +.52, p < .001), while PTSD
symptoms were negatively correlated with job performance (r = −.45, p < .001). Additionally, trauma exposure
exhibited a moderate negative correlation with job performance (r = −.30, p < .01). These results suggest that
as officers experience more trauma, their PTSD symptoms intensify, which in turn adversely impacts their
overall work output. Comparable patterns were noted by Ugwu and Idemudia (2024), who reported a similar
correlation between trauma exposure and PTSD (r ≈ .50) and an inverse relationship between PTSD and
performance outcomes. In Kenya, Akoth et al. (2023) found that approximately 18% of Nairobi County police
officers met PTSD criteria, with trauma exposure strongly linked to functional impairment.
Table 1. Correlation Matrix among Key Study Variables
Variables
Correlation Coefficient (r)
Significance (p)
Trauma Exposure ↔ PTSD Symptoms
+0.52
< .001
PTSD Symptoms ↔ Job Performance
−0.45
< .001
Trauma Exposure ↔ Job Performance
−0.30
< .01
Mediation Analysis: PTSD as a Mediator
To test the mediation hypothesis, Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used to examine whether PTSD
symptoms mediate the effect of trauma exposure on job performance. The mediation analysis (Table 2)
showed a significant positive effect of trauma exposure on PTSD (β = +0.46, p < .001) and a negative effect of
PTSD on job performance (β = −0.37, p < .001). The direct effect of trauma exposure on job performance
remained significant but reduced in magnitude (β = −0.20, p < .01) after including PTSD in the model,
indicating partial mediation. The indirect effect (β = −0.17, p < .01) confirms that PTSD explains a substantial
proportion of the relationship between trauma exposure and decreased job performance.
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Table 2. Mediation Analysis Summary
Path
t / z-value
p-value
Trauma → Performance (Direct, without PTSD)
−2.97
< .01
Trauma → PTSD
7.09
< .001
PTSD → Performance
−5.34
< .001
Indirect Effect (Trauma → PTSD →
Performance)
−3.28
< .01
Total Effect
−5.32
< .001
These findings validate the theoretical model that PTSD symptoms act as a psychological mechanism linking
traumatic exposure to impaired occupational performance. Similar mediation effects have been documented in
police populations globally (Ugwu & Idemudia, 2024) and in U.S. studies validating the PC-PTSD-5 screening
tool, which correlated strongly with occupational stress indicators (Bovin et al., 2022).
The present findings align with and extend previous research demonstrating that PTSD mediates the
relationship between occupational trauma and performance outcomes. Ugwu and Idemudia (2024) emphasized
that PTSD not only correlates with burnout but also explains a significant portion of productivity loss among
police officers. Likewise, the current results corroborate this model by quantifying PTSD’s partial mediating
effect within Kenyan policing contexts. Studies such as Akoth et al. (2023) and the Garissa County mental
health study (2023) further support the observed patterns, linking deployment stress and exposure to critical
incidents with increased mental health challenges among officers.
By explicitly modeling job performance as an outcome variable, this study advances understanding of how
psychological distress mechanisms impair operational effectiveness. The results provide evidence that
interventions targeting trauma management and PTSD prevention can yield measurable improvements in
performance. Consequently, trauma-informed leadership, structured counseling programs, and early PTSD
screening could serve as critical components in mitigating the adverse occupational impacts of trauma within
the National Police Service (NPS).
Implications
The partial mediation effect observed in this study implies that effective interventions should not only aim to
minimize trauma exposure an unavoidable aspect of police work but must also directly target PTSD symptoms
through systematic screening, counseling, debriefing, and resilience-building programs. Integrating trauma-
informed training modules and mental health literacy into police education can equip officers with the skills to
recognize early signs of PTSD and seek timely support. Institutional policies should further promote a
supportive organizational culture that prioritizes psychological well-being, normalizes mental health care, and
reduces stigma surrounding help-seeking behaviors. Supervisors and command officers should be trained to
detect distress among subordinates and facilitate referral to mental health services. These implications resonate
with international best practices such as the Belgian stepped-care model (2023), which emphasizes multi-tiered
prevention, early detection, and treatment of trauma, and the BMC Psychology meta-analysis among Chinese
police (2024), which found that adaptive coping styles and resource availability can buffer the adverse PTSD–
performance relationship.
Limitations
This study’s cross-sectional design limits the ability to infer causal or temporal relationships between trauma
exposure, PTSD development, and job performance decline. The reliance on self-reported data introduces
potential biases such as social desirability and misreporting, particularly concerning sensitive psychological
and performance measures. Additionally, because the sample was drawn solely from Njoro Sub-County, the
findings may not be fully generalizable to police officers in other Kenyan regions with varying operational
demands or institutional contexts. Although validated instruments such as the PCL-5 and IWPQ were
employed, their sensitivity may not fully capture the cultural and contextual dimensions of trauma and
performance among Kenyan police. Finally, unmeasured moderating variables such as coping mechanisms,
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peer and family support, and organizational culture may also influence the strength of the PTSD mediation
effect observed, warranting further longitudinal and multi-site research.
POLICY AND PRACTICAL RECOMMENDATIONS
To enhance mental health and operational effectiveness within the National Police Service (NPS), both policy
and practice-oriented interventions are essential. At the policy level, the NPS should institutionalize routine
psychological screening and counseling units at station levels to enable early detection and intervention for
trauma-related disorders. Mental health and trauma management modules should be integrated into the police
training curriculum from recruitment to foster resilience, while comprehensive wellness programs comprising
peer support, chaplaincy, and family counseling should be established to strengthen psychosocial wellbeing.
Practically, police commanders should implement structured mentorship programs pairing senior officers with
junior personnel to promote guidance and psychosocial support, alongside standardized post-incident
debriefing sessions to provide timely emotional care following traumatic exposures. Furthermore, access to
recreational and stress management facilities should be expanded to encourage adaptive coping and reduce
occupational stress, thereby improving both individual wellbeing and institutional performance.
Practical Recommendations
Establish Mentorship and Peer Support Systems Police commanders should prioritize the development of
structured mentorship programs that pair senior officers with junior colleagues to provide both professional
guidance and psychosocial support. Such peer-based systems encourage open communication, build trust, and
enhance coping mechanisms for trauma-related stress. Empirical findings by Violanti et al. (2017) and Owino
and Kipkemboi (2024) demonstrate that mentorship initiatives led by experienced peers improve emotional
resilience, teamwork, and ethical conduct, which are crucial for sustained job performance and mental health
stability within the police force.
Introduce Standardized Post-Incident Debriefing The National Police Service (NPS) should adopt mandatory
post-incident debriefing protocols to be conducted after officers are exposed to traumatic events such as
shootings, riots, or fatal accidents. These debriefing sessions should be facilitated by trained mental health
professionals or psychologists to promote early emotional processing and reduce the risk of chronic PTSD
symptoms. As supported by Ugwu and Idemudia (2024) and Violanti et al. (2023), structured debriefing
significantly mitigates acute stress reactions and fosters psychological recovery, ultimately preserving officers’
operational readiness.
Enhance Access to Recreational, Stress-Relief, and Family Support Facilities Policing can be emotionally
taxing, making physical and psychosocial rejuvenation essential. Establishing on-site gyms, relaxation lounges,
and family engagement programs can improve emotional regulation and strengthen social support systems.
The 2024 BMC Psychology review confirmed that agencies investing in wellness infrastructure report lower
burnout levels and greater employee satisfaction. Encouraging family participation in wellness initiatives also
reinforces emotional stability, fostering holistic wellbeing that translates into improved service delivery.
Leverage Technology for Mental Health Monitoring Given the rising digital transformation within public
service, the NPS can integrate technology-driven tools for real-time mental health monitoring and intervention.
Confidential mobile applications for stress self-assessment, anonymous reporting of distress, and tele-
counseling services can provide discreet, accessible support, particularly for officers stationed in remote areas.
According to Munyua and Gikonyo (2025), digital mental health platforms enhance help-seeking behavior
while reducing stigma, thereby complementing traditional face-to-face counseling models.
Foster Community–Police Partnerships for Trauma Awareness Police-community collaboration should extend
beyond security operations to include joint trauma awareness and resilience-building initiatives. Community
leaders, faith-based groups, and NGOs can partner with police units to organize workshops on stress
management, empathy, and psychosocial wellbeing. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC,
2024) emphasizes that community-inclusive mental health interventions not only reduce officers’ emotional
burden but also improve public trust and cooperation, creating a supportive policing environment.
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5.2.6Encourage Evidence-Based Research and Policy Feedback Lastly, the NPS should institutionalize a
culture of evidence-based practice by supporting continuous research on officers’ mental health trends,
intervention outcomes, and job performance indicators. Regular monitoring and dissemination of findings can
guide responsive policy revisions and tailor interventions to local realities. Ndirangu (2025) underscores that
iterative feedback loops between research, practice, and policy enhance sustainability, ensuring that mental
health initiatives remain adaptive, data-driven, and impactful for Kenya’s policing context.
Further Recommendations
To enhance the sustainability and institutionalization of mental health interventions within the National Police
Service (NPS), a National Police Mental Health Directorate should be established to coordinate, supervise, and
evaluate all wellness and psychological support programs across the country. The directorate should work
closely with universities and research institutions to promote evidence-based practices through collaborative
training, mental health screening, and longitudinal research on trauma, resilience, and performance in policing.
Recognizing that an officer’s family environment directly impacts emotional wellbeing, family-based
counseling interventions should be institutionalized to strengthen psychosocial support systems, as emphasized
by Akoth et al. (2023). Furthermore, incentivizing trauma management training through promotion credits or
professional awards can motivate officers to participate actively in peer-support and trauma-counseling
certification programs, building internal capacity for sustainable mental health management. Finally, a robust
monitoring and evaluation framework should be implemented to track progress, assess outcomes, and ensure
continuous improvement and accountability in wellness policy implementation, in line with global
recommendations by the World Health Organization (WHO, 2023).
CONCLUSION
The study concludes that PTSD is a critical mediator in the relationship between trauma exposure and job
performance among police officers in Njoro Sub-County. Unresolved trauma significantly compromises
concentration, decision-making, and interpersonal relations, thereby reducing operational effectiveness.
Addressing PTSD through structured mental health interventions is therefore essential for sustainable police
performance and institutional stability.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors sincerely thank the National Police Service of Kenya for their cooperation during data collection.
Special appreciation goes to Kisii University and the University of East Africa, Baraton for academic
guidance. The authors acknowledge Dr. Daniel A. Otwori and Dr. Rose Otieno for their invaluable mentorship
and supervision.
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