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Breaking Barriers, Building Futures: The Transformative Role of

Higher Education for Women's Leadership in the Gambian

Education System

Ceesay, Sulayman;

Akuffo, Douglas Okai;

Chol, Bek Dhuorjang

Huazhong University of Science and

Technology, College of Public Administration

Huazhong University of Science and Technology, College of Public Administration

Lecturer, University of Juba, South Sudan, PhD Candidate, Huazhong University of Science and

Technology, College of Public Administration

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2025.1210000345

Received: 02 November 2025; Accepted: 10 November 2025; Published: 22 November 2025

ABSTRACT

This study examines and critiques the effect that tertiary education has on the performance levels of women in

leadership in the education sector in The Gambia. A cross-sectional mixed-methodology approach is employed

to investigate the correlations between levels of education and leadership. The study examines the issues faced

and the contribution it makes to effectiveness. It had a strongly positive relationship with statistical significance,

with the field of study and specialization being the strongest predictor. Academic credentials and institutional

backing are a compelling demonstration of strong, positive correlative qualities. Higher education leads to

improvements in women's self-esteem and judgment, according to qualitative data. It recognizes that variable

qualities related to education explain 85.6% of the differences in effectiveness. Despite these accomplishments,

issues such as gender discrimination, cultural traditions, and politics have hindered women's complete utilization

of their academic attainments. It can be concluded that while tertiary education offers numerous benefits for

leadership, this potential can be more fully realized when combined with institutional support and other societal

factors. transformations.

Keywords: Women’s Leadership, Tertiary Education, Gambia, Gender Equity, and Human Capital Theory.

INTRODUCTION

Globally, there is increasing interest in women's leadership concerning implications for public service

effectiveness and gender equity. Women's involvement in leadership enhances organizational growth and

decisions (Eagly & Koenig, 2021; Gillard & Despite). Despite the rising participation of women in education

across the world, their involvement in governance leadership remains low (Abalkhail, 2017; Domingo et al.,

2022; Henningsen et al., Blackburn, 2023). This is partly because it leads to discussions on the effectiveness of

women’s education among the global academic community. Education is generally regarded as the catalyst for

women's empowerment and leadership development. Higher education equips women with better knowledge

and skills in leadership. Sometimes, “the potential for this level of education to enhance one's performance in

leadership is hindered by specific obstacles in the learning environment, as well as gender issues” (Domingo et

al., 2022; Eagly & Koenig, 2021). Thus, it is imperative to note that one must focus on both women's

achievements in academia and corresponding leadership skills.

At the continental level, the trends observed in Africa follow the same pattern. Despite Agenda 2063's

encouragement of gender balance and women's empowerment, progress has been uneven (Hazel & Kleyman,

2020). More women in Africa are pursuing post-secondary education, demonstrating their resilience in the face

of challenges. Nonetheless, their struggle to rise to leadership positions is impeded by sociocultural attitudes and

a lack of networking opportunities (Doe, 2024; Evans & Maley, 2021; Hideg & Shen, 2019). Gender imbalances

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in STEM education have been emblematic of inequality at the post-secondary educational institution level

(Gupta, 2020; Garr-Schultz et al., 2023). Thus, post-secondary educational institutions symbolize a paradox

surrounding women's empowerment at the continental level of Africa.

At the regional level, West Africa is one such place. Nigeria, Ghana, and Senegal have registered growth

regarding female postsecondary enrollment. These countries still show a lack of representation of women in

influential or decision-making roles within the education sector (Pegram Jr., 2025). Social or cultural traditions

that emphasize domestic duties over their careers limit women's goals to ascend to leadership positions (Eaton

et al., 2020). Stereotypes that raise questions about women's potential to be leaders sustain barriers (Dersch et

al., 2022). Despite this struggle, women with leadership positions have the capacity to be transformative agents.

These women are advocates for inclusive policies and motivate young women (Williams et al., 2025). This is

because this scenario makes it even more imperative to investigate how tertiary education affects the leadership

efficacy of women in this region. The tertiary education level is especially significant because it affords women

the opportunity to obtain skills that are essential for effectively providing (Ahmed et al., 2020; Edwards et al.,

2020). It is also during this time that they have networking opportunities and experiences that increase their

levels of confidence (Domingo et al., 2022). Education offers women the opportunity to overcome stereotypes

as it validates their skills (Abalkhail, 2017). However, it is worth highlighting that academic brilliance does not

guarantee success in leadership roles. This is because there could be intervening variables (Evans & Maley,

2021).

In the education sector, leadership plays a critical role in ensuring quality, equity, and innovative approaches

(Ministry of Basic and Secondary Education & Higher Education, 2016). Women leaders bring with them their

experiences to ensure collaboration, inclusivity, and a focus on students (Andrew, 2020; Arora, 2022). Women

leaders have a multiplier effect because they have the capacity to be role models or mentors for young girls

(Williams et al., 2025). However, their low representation, unconscious biases, and non-support have been

hindering their progress in the education sector (Domingo et al., 2022; Doe, 2024). The debate about women's

performance in leadership in the education sector would be a valuable source for information on both the abilities

and limitations of tertiary education for women's empowerment. That is why the connection between tertiary

education and the effectiveness of women leaders is important.

Higher education enhances one's skills and analytical abilities, which are complex in nature. These are essential

attributes for effective leadership (Bennouri et al., 2022). Higher education will enhance women's symbolic

capital to resist stereotypes and legitimize their position in a leadership context (Guldiken et al., 2019).

Furthermore, global connections or opportunities accessed through higher education can enhance leadership

skills (Blackburn 2023). However, inequalities such as gender biases, issues with promotion, or sociological

traditions persist and mitigate such benefits (Doe, 2024; Fatty & Twum). These problems are even more

prominent in Gambia. Despite greater accessibility to education, women’s underrepresentation in senior roles in

education is a reality (Doe, 2024; Fatty & Twum, 2023). Social barriers, lack of institutional support, and limited

mentoring opportunities impede their advancement (The Gambia News Agency, 2025; Jallow, 2025). However,

women in Gambia have been leading the way in terms of education and directing their communities and have

made significant impacts in terms of growth and development in this nation (Alumni Team, 2020).

Contemporary strategies such as their National Gender Strategy for Tertiary Education and First Higher

Education Gender Policy clearly demonstrate the actions taken by this country to address such issues (The

Gambia News Agency, 2025; Jallow, 2025).

In framing a deeper appreciation for the role that tertiary education might play regarding influencing the

performance of women's leadership in the Gambia, consideration might be given to each of the above-mentioned

global, continental, and regional perspectives. While it is well-accepted that tertiary education has the power to

completely empower women and enhance their leadership performance, appreciating its effectiveness is

significant. This investigation specifically aims to (1) examine the relationship between tertiary education and

women's leadership performance in The Gambia's education sector, (2) evaluate how tertiary education impacts

the effectiveness of women's leadership roles, and (3) identify the challenges women leaders face in leveraging

tertiary education to improve their performance.

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Hypotheses of the Study

H1: Female leaders in the Gambia's education sector perform better when they have more tertiary education.

H2: Academic qualification, area of study or specialization, and availability of support services and guidance

positively influence the efficient leadership performance of women leaders in the education sector in the Gambia.

Literature Review on Tertiary Education, Performance of Women Leadership, And the

Education Sector

Generally, tertiary education is post-secondary education that involves learning with the intention of creating

knowledge and skills for employment related to leadership (Ministry of Basic and Secondary Education, and

Higher Education, Research, Science, and Technology, 2016). It is vital to develop women leaders in the

educational sector because it involves skills related to leading. One can develop these skills by being well-versed

in academics and undergoing leadership training. These dimensions contribute to the development of essential

skills (Doe, 2024; Ahmed, Urmi & Tasmin, 2020).

Improved leadership effectiveness significantly correlates with academic preparedness. This is because Bowman

et al. (2022) argue that pursuing higher degrees enhances critical thinking and decision-making prowess. These

skills are pivotal to women leaders. Additionally, Alharbi (2023) agrees that women's academic preparedness in

higher education contributes to their credibility. This is because academic preparedness is part of women's

legitimacy as leaders. It is well and again established that education is a powerful means to women's

empowerment (Eagly & Koenig, 2021; Gillard & Okonjo-Iweala, 2022). However, these advantages are not

common in the least developed environments (Abalkhail, 2017; Blackburn, 2023). The area of specialization is

another critical element that has significant effects on experiences with leadership. According to Ahmed et al.

(2020), women in areas like STEM gain more professionalism, which enhances their position. On the contrary,

it is argued by Doe (2024) that for women in The Gambia, their capacity for leadership is diminished by their

inability to specialize in critical areas. This constrains their role in decision-making.

Institutional support and mentorship form highly critical mediating factors. According to Edwards et al. (2020),

mentorship is crucial because it involves guidance, networking opportunities, and boosting one's esteem. Lack

of mentorship keeps women in subservient positions (Domingo et al., 2022). In the Gambia, there is a chronic

lack of mentorship programs, according to Fatty and Twum (2023).

Participation in leadership training is another important factor that influences effectiveness. Abalkhail (2017)

and Gillard & Okonjo-Iweala (2022) support that training improves negotiation skills and management abilities.

But according to Jallow (2025), for The Gambia's situation, women's participation is still very restricted despite

the availability of a gender strategy. It seems there is a contradiction because training is encouraged as a means

to achieve empowerment. This dissertation will investigate why there is a gap between benefits gained and

performance achievements.

Performance of women in leadership is measured through their effectiveness in reaching objectives, influencing

or shaping policies, creating inclusivity, or mentoring (Gillard & Okonjo-Iweala, 2022; Arora, 2022). Some of

the indicators include influence in decision-making, effectiveness in the organization, senior-level gender

representation, or overcoming challenges (Bennouri, De Amicis & Falconieri, 2022; Edwards et al., 2020).

Participation in strategy is related to education (Abalkhail, 2017), while Arora (2022) indicates innovation in

teams. Gender-diverse leadership improves legitimacy because it is both a determinant and an indicator (Evans

& Maley, 2021).

Despite such efforts, sociocultural impediments and institutionalized biases continue to pose a challenge. Eagly

& Koenig (2021) and Doe (2024) suggest that in The Gambia, patriarchy and stereotypes challenge women's

position of power. Even if women have been actively involved as teachers and community leaders (Alumni

Team, 2020) for a considerable amount of time, their role is still underrepresented at high levels (Doe, 2024;

Fatty & Twum, 2023) in the country. This indicates that academic success is not a guarantee to remove barriers.

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Regionally, there is a growing public demand for the government to address gender disparities (Fatty & Twum,

2023). According to Doe (2024), there is still a challenge even with the growth in education because there is

limited guidance, promotion, and structure to influence leadership. This is supported by evidence (Garr-Schultz

et al., 2023; Blackburn, 2023) that highlights that it is not just in The Gambia that such inequality is perpetuated.

In conclusion, literature clearly establishes the importance of tertiary education for women's leadership and the

role of competency skills. A critical knowledge gap still prevails regarding the transfer of skills attained to

improved performance. Sub-Saharan Africa particularly highlights this issue. The paucity of literature regarding

West Africa that uses mixed methods to quantitatively validate the issue is evident. There is a well-established

qualitative investigation of women's experiences in overcoming sociocultural barriers.

To close the gap, the proposed study analyzes the link between post-secondary education and the performance

of women in leadership. It will determine the role of education in improving performance and examine the

challenges associated with women utilizing their education to improve their performance. This will enable the

researcher to generate empirical knowledge to contribute to the gender debate.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The study is grounded on the Human Capital Theory (HCT) developed by Gary S. Becker in his work titled

“Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis with Special Reference to Education,” first published in

1964 and then revised in 1993. This theory was developed to account for differences in productivity and

economic growth because of variations in educational attainments and skills accumulation. This theory

completely transformed the concept of education, as it assumes that “individuals and societies acquire benefits

from the accumulation of knowledge and skills that raise productivity” (Becker, 1964, 1993).

HCT is based on three tenets. First, people consider themselves rational actors who calculate the costs and

benefits of capitalizing on education. This implies that investing in education enhances human productivity and

results in their improved performance (Becker, 1993). The third tenet is that persons and the organization have

a drive for efficiency. It bridges individual growth to collective or societal advancement. The 'cause and effect'

logic of HCT directly qualifies it for assessing the relationship between post-primary education and women's

leadership performance.

Some of the critical HCT concepts tested in this research include education as investment; investment in skills

and their associated resources (Arora 2022); the benefits of education that transcend purely economic benefits

to include effectiveness and innovation (Ahmed et al. 2020; Abalkhail 2017); and the enhancement of

competency informed by specialization and training (Edwards et al. 2020). Since the Gambia is the setting for

the current research, the above-mentioned concepts have been represented as independent variables in the form

of tertiary education attainment, area of study, capacity-building engagement, or mentorship availability.

Additionally, women's effectiveness in leadership is the dependent variable. According to Becker's postulations,

we hypothesize that women leaders who possess advanced education, high levels of specialization, and support

will demonstrate superior performance (Becker, 1993). The first research objective to examine the relationship

between post-primary education and performance is directly informed by HCT's overarching tenet that education

improves productivity (Doe, 2024). The second objective, to test the role of education in superior performance,

is informed by HCT's emphasis on specialization and capacity building (Abalkhail, 2017; Arora, 2022). The

third objective, to look at contextual impediments, is to extend the reach of HCT to consider that it is not just

education itself that matters, but the context in which it operates (Eagly & Koenig, 2021; Fatty & Twum, 2023).

Literature on gender and leadership widely applies HCT, demonstrating its explanatory power (Blackburn, 2023;

Bowman et al., 2022). Its assumptions can be verified on a quantitative methodological framework, such as

regression analyses, to ascertain the impact of education on performance. But HCT is still a theory with profound

limitations. For instance, it is argued that it exaggerates the role of individual agency and undervalues the effect

of institutional and structural limitations to transform education achievements into leadership achievements

(Eaton et al., 2020; Domingo et al., 2022). In patriarchal societies such as Gambia, highly educated women may

still be precluded from attaining senior positions due to male-centric stereotypes and systemic inadequacies

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(Doe, 2024; Abalkhail, 2017). The linear model does not acknowledge how power and culture mediate individual

achievements in returning to education (Evans & Maley, 2021). Hence, HCT demands another explanatory

framework to consider these "intervening variables."

To address this concern, the paper incorporates Acker's (1990) theory of gendered organizations. Acker

postulates that gender is systematically ingrained in the structure and functioning of organizations, with a focus

on perpetuating male norms and failing women. This theory is critical to understanding the reason why women

with similar or superior educational attainments continue to produce poorer leadership outcomes in comparison

to men (Eagly & Koenig, 2021; Evans & Maley, 2021).

An integration of HCT and Acker's theory can supply a well-rounded understanding of agency and structure.

While HCT describes how women's education investments bring them skills and qualifications for their position

as leaders, Acker's theory describes the processes that impede the return on their investments. For instance, if

women in The Gambia have potential disadvantages in obtaining mentoring and promotion to leadership

positions, it is not necessarily because they lack human capital investments (Doe, 2024; Fatty & Twum, 2023).

This comprehensive framework responds to the 'training paradox,' in that although HCT predicts that training

and education have a performance-enhancing outcome, in accordance with Acker's theory, these outcomes for

women's performance will vary subject to whether gender-inclusive implementation is institutionalized. Thus,

the relevance of tertiary education is dependent on a particular setting.

The combined framework specifies tertiary education, specialization, mentoring, and training for staff as the

independent variables (HCT); women's performance in leadership positions as the dependent variable; and

impediments to institutional transformation and sociocultural variables (Acker) operating as the intermediate

variables. With the combination of Human Capital Theory and Acker's Theory on Gendered Organizations, one

can build a complex model.

The model allows for an understanding of both the economic imperative for individual investment in education,

such as women's education, while simultaneously recognizing other institutional and cultural dimensions. This

theoretical model lends itself well to the proposed mixed-methods methodology.

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework on the Effect of Tertiary Education on Performance of Women Leadership in

The Gambia’s Education Sector

Source: Adapted from Becker’s Human Capital Theory (Becker, 1964, 1993) and developed by the researcher

for this study (2025).

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METHOD AND MATERIALS

The study population (N = 1,845) consisted of staff from institutions under the Ministry of Basic and Secondary

Education (MoBSE) and the Ministry of Higher Education, Research, Science, and Technology (MoHERST).

MoBSE institutions included Lower Basic Schools (LBS), Upper Basic Schools (UBS), and Senior Secondary

Schools (SSS), while MOHERST covered public Universities, Colleges, and Technical and Vocational

Education Training (TVET) institutions (Table 1). The focus on public institutions was due to their direct

alignment with government education policy, enabling comparative insights on gender and leadership dynamics.

Table 1: Population of the Study

Institution Type

Institution Name

Population (Staff)

Lower Basic Schools (LBS)

Albion LBS

Campama LBS

Bakau New Town LBS

GOVI LBS

Hamza Barrack LBS

Fajara Barrack LBS

Muhammadan LBS

Methodist Special LBS

St. John’s LBS

St. Mary’s LBS

Rev. J.C. Faye LBS

Wesley LBS

Upper Basic Schools (UBS)

Bakadagi UBS

Badary BCS

Fatoto UBS

Kantora UBS

Julangel UBS

Tjereng UBS & SSS

Mansa Colley Bojang, UBS

Brikama UBS

Gambia Methodist Academy UBS

St. Therese’s UBS

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Senior Secondary Schools (SSS)

Gambia SSS

Muslim SSS

Armitage SSS

St. Peter’s SSS

Nusrat SSS

Universities/Colleges/TVET

(MofHERST)

University of The Gambia

480

University of Education, The

Gambia

260

USET

108

Civil Service University

Total

1,845

Source: Personal Communication with officials of the various schools (May 6–June 29, 2025).

A cross-sectional mixed-methods design was employed. It entails the simultaneous collection of quantitative and

qualitative data. The quantitative component enables statistical analysis of the relationships between tertiary

education and women's leadership performance, and the qualitative component provides more profound insights.

The integration of both research methodologies facilitated complementarity and triangulation, hence, enhancing

validity. The longitudinal design may monitor the progression of leadership performance over time. The cross-

sectional method was chosen for its practicality and efficiency in fulfilling the research objectives. Considering

the study's objective to identify preliminary correlations and provide comprehensive, current insights into

women's leadership in the Gambia, a cross-sectional design was considered most suitable. It facilitated the

efficient gathering of data from a vast, geographically scattered sample within a limited timeframe. This offers

an essential basic overview that can guide future longitudinal studies (Fan et al., 2025; Eroğlu et al., 2025). This

methodology effectively captures dominant views, experiences, and relationships at a particular moment in time.

This method corresponds with the study's objective of producing prompt evidence for policy development.

The formula by Krejcie and Morgan (1970) was used to calculate that a sample size of 317 participants is

necessary for 95% confidence with a 5% margin of error for a population of 1,845.

A sampling technique was employed for conducting the quantitative survey. The strata comprised institution

types (LBS, UBS, SSS, university, college, and training institute), and then random sampling was conducted.

Finally, purposive sampling was used to collect data for the qualitative phase, selecting 18 interviewees,

specifically women in senior positions and administrators, to provide their institutional perspectives.

The independent variable was tertiary education, which is defined by qualifications, disciplines, specialization,

and participation in training. The dependent variable is performance in leadership, which is expressed through

decision-making effectiveness, institutional performance, feedback, and management skills.

The quantitative data were analyzed with SPSS version 22 and SMART PLS. Descriptive statistics, correlation

analyses, and multiple regression analysis were performed. The thematic analyses of the qualitative data

employed manual coding to discern themes, including deficiencies in mentorship and institutional resistance.

Descriptive statistics were calculated to encapsulate the demographic and main factors. Pearson correlation and

multiple regression analyses were used to evaluate the study's hypotheses.

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The preliminary correlation study indicated substantial relationships (exceeding 0.88) across the independent

variables, notably between Academic Qualifications and Field of Study and Specialization (r = .908) and

between Field of Study and Specialization and Leadership Performance (r = .971). Although these robust

associations are conceptually comprehensible, as elevated academic achievement frequently impacts one's area

of expertise, and both are posited to enhance performance, such significant intercorrelations may suggest

multicollinearity. Multicollinearity can exacerbate the standard errors of regression coefficients, complicating

the evaluation of each predictor's distinct contribution.

To thoroughly diagnose and resolve this potential issue, we performed a comprehensive collinearity

examination. We computed the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) and Tolerance statistics for each predictor in the

regression model. Multicollinearity increases the variance of a regression coefficient, as measured by the

Variance Inflation Factor (VIF). The standard thresholds of VIF < 10 and Tolerance > 0.10 indicate that

multicollinearity is not significantly affecting the model.

Thematic analysis of the qualitative interview data adhered to the iterative methodology established by Braun

and Clarke (2006). Following the transcription of the interviews, the researchers conducted multiple readings to

enhance familiarity. Preliminary codes were produced and subsequently organized into prospective themes. The

analysis was a cyclical process in which ideas were perpetually evaluated, honed, and delineated. Thematic

saturation was established after roughly 15 interviews, as later interviews produced no additional significant

themes or insights pertinent to the research aims. The last three interviews validated and reinforced the

highlighted themes. This instills confidence that a thorough comprehension of the phenomenon has been

attained. Participants' quotations enhanced the ideas.

The instruments used for this study comprised two types: one for quantitative research involving a structured

questionnaire with closed and Likert-scale items (1=strongly Disagree to 5=strongly Agree) about tertiary

education, performance on leadership, and institutional support. We asked open-ended questions on leadership

experiences, mentorship, educational background, and sociocultural challenges, which allowed for probing and

elaboration. We asked open-ended questions about experiences with leadership, mentoring, educational

background, and sociocultural challenges, allowing for probing and elaboration.

Development and Validation of Instruments

The structured questionnaire was developed through a multi-stage process to ensure content validity and

reliability. The items were initially formulated by a comprehensive review of the literature concerning women's

leadership, higher education, and Human Capital Theory. A trio of experts in public administration, educational

leadership, and gender studies subsequently evaluated these matters. The experts assessed the items for clarity,

relevance, and comprehensiveness. This led to the improvement of language and the inclusion of several context-

specific measures for leadership effectiveness.

The revised instrument was subsequently pilot tested with a group of 30 female educational leaders. They were

omitted from the principal study. The pilot results were assessed for internal consistency using Cronbach's Alpha.

The alpha coefficients for all categories (Academic Qualifications, Field of Study, Institutional Support,

Leadership Training, and Leadership Performance) exceeded the acceptable threshold of 0.80. This approach

exhibited considerable dependability. Feedback from pilot participants on ambiguity and completion time was

included in the final version of the questionnaire, which enhanced its clarity and usability.

The Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the University of The Gambia sought and granted ethical clearance.

Participants got informed consent documents, which contained information about participation and the right to

withdraw. Anonymity and confidentiality were strictly observed. The cross-sectional design made it difficult to

determine causes, but regression, stratified sampling, and triangulation reduced bias. Subject variables such as

organizational culture were taken into consideration for a balanced interpretation.

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RESULTS

Quantitative Perspective

The respondents' demographics have been considered for background and institutional representation. Of the

317 questionnaires distributed, 232 were received, yielding a 73% response rate. These are women in leadership

positions in LBS, UBS, SSS, and Universities/Colleges/TVET (MoHERST). Age distribution was 20.7% (25–

34 years), 39.2% (35–44 years), 29.3% (45–54 years), and 10.8% (55+ years), indicating a majority were mid-

career professionals. Concerning academic qualifications, 37.5% possessed a bachelor’s, 48.3% a master’s, and

14.2% a doctorate, which means that a vast majority of female leaders have postgraduate qualifications. The

institutional percentage breakdown includes 38.8% in LBS, 25.9% in UBS, 17.2% in SSS, and 18.1% in

experienced and well-distributed, thus offering a robust analytical base. Descriptive statistics were used to

summarize variables in this study. The mean score for academic qualifications (M = 3.85, SD = 0.62), area of

specialization and field of study (M = 4.10, SD = 0.55), support and mentorship (M = 3.92, SD = 0.59),

involvement in leadership programs (M = 3.74, SD = 0.70), and leadership performance (M = 4.05, SD = 0.60)

ranked above 3.0 on the 5-point Likert scale. This indicates that overall levels of education, opportunity for

mentorship, and performance in leadership positions have been regarded as high.

An Explanatory Factor Analysis (EFA) was conducted to examine the factor structure of the measurement items.

From a Principal Component Analysis with Varimax rotation, four components with eigenvalues above 1.0 were

retained, which accounted for 82.4% of the variation. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) index was .894, and

Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity was significant (χ^2 = 1,256.37, p < .001), suggesting the adequacy of data for factor

analysis. All factor loads were exceeded. 60. The Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) with the AMOS software

confirmed the measurement model. All fit the criteria: χ^2/df = 2.31, Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = .958, Tucker

Lewis Index (TLI) = .946, Root Mean Square Error Approximation (RMSEA) = .063, and Standardized Root

Mean Square Residual (SRMR) = .048, showing acceptable model fit. All composite reliabilities fell between

.86 and .92. The average variance extracted (AVE) for all constructs surpassed .50.

Multicollinearity or Collinearity Statistics (VIF) analysis

To diagnose collinearity and multicollinearity issues, we performed a full variance inflation factor (VIF) test. As

presented in Table 2, all VIF for measurement items (outer model) and structural paths (inner model) are below

the conservative threshold of 5 (Hair et al., 2019). The highest VIF for the structural path is 3.215 (PILP  LP).

This confirms that the constructs are statistically related, as indicated in the correlation matrix (Table 2);

therefore, multicollinearity does not reach a bias parameter that might undermine the model.

Table 2: Descriptive Statistics, Mean, Standard Deviation, and Correlations

Variable

1. AQ

0.11

0.8705

2. FSS

0.8892

.552*

0.09

3. ISM

0.9115

.596*

.645*

0.17

4. PILP

0.09

0.9347

.728*

.648*

.734*

5. LP

0.9176

0.017

.384*

.346*

.281*

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0.77

6. Gender

1.49

0.501

0.051

0.018

-0.009

0.05

0.03

7. Age

3.02

1.327

0.025

-0.009

-0.056

-0.01

0.07

0.06

8. Position

4.06

1.989

0.063

0.12

0.11

0.083

0.00

0.06

Experience

2.97

1.411

-0.053

-.155*

-0.057

-0.025

-0.03

0.01

0.02

0.04

10.

Education

2.91

1.393

-0.041

-0.01

-0.023

-0.056

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.00

0.01

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-

tailed).

Source: Author’s Computation (2025)

This table presents Mean (M), Standard Deviation (SD), and a correlation matrix for all the study variables. The

means are near zero, and the standard deviations are close to one for the main constructs (AQ, FSS, ISM, PILP,

and LP), suggesting the data were standardized for analysis. The matrix shows positive correlations among the

constructs (e.g., r = .728 between AQ and PILP), confirming their interrelatedness. In contrast, LP shows

correlations with other constructs and demographic variables, showing weak and non-significant relationships.

Convergent Validity and Reliability

For transparency of the measurement instrument, Table 3 demonstrates strong evidence for convergence validity

with all factor loadings exceeding 0.70 and AVE values above the .50 threshold. Furthermore, reliability is

excellent, with Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability > 0.70 benchmark.

Table 3: Construct reliability and validity

Construct

Items

Loadings

Cronbach's

alpha

Composite

reliability (rho_a)

Composite

reliability (rho_c)

AVE

AQ1

0.872

0.862

0.866

0.916

0.784

AQ2

0.898

AQ3

0.886

FSS

FSS1

0.867

0.841

0.904

0.759

FSS2

0.885

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FSS3

0.861

ISM

ISM1

0.876

0.859

0.860

0.914

0.780

ISM 2

0.893

ISM3

0.880

LP 1

0.917

0.953

0.956

0.964

0.841

LP 2

0.932

LP 3

0.916

LP 4

0.914

LP 5

0.906

PILP

PILP1

0.906

0.886

0.929

0.814

PILP2

0.900

PILP3

0.902

Source: Author’s Computation (2025)

All factor loadings exceed 0.86, demonstrating strong indicator reliability. Alpha and composite reliability values

are greater than the 0.70 threshold, confirming excellent internal consistency. All Average Variance Extracted

(AVE) values range from 0.759 to 0.841, greater than the 0.05 benchmark, providing strong evidence for

convergent validity.

Table 4: Collinearity Statistics (VIF)

Outer Model

VIF

Outer Model

VIF

AQ1

2.133

AQ -> ISM

1.436

AQ2

2.277

AQ -> LP

2.200

AQ3

2.194

AQ -> PILP

1.436

FSS1

1.992

FSS -> ISM

1.436

FSS2

2.184

FSS -> LP

1.961

FSS3

1.870

FSS -> PILP

1.436

ISM1

2.120

ISM -> LP

2.455

ISM2

2.259

PILP -> LP

3.215

ISM3

2.128

LP1

4.203

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LP2

4.861

LP3

4.120

LP4

4.206

LP5

3.914

PILP1

2.622

PILP2

2.502

PILP3

2.479

Source: Author’s Computation (2025)

All Variance Inflation Factors (VIF) are below the common threshold of 5. The highest value is 4.861 for a

measurement item (LP2) and 3.215 for the structural path (PILP  LP). This indicates that multicollinearity is

not a severe problem affecting the regression coefficients, affirming the robustness of the path estimates.

Discriminant validity

We assessed discriminant validity (HTMT), the Fornell-Larcker Criterion, and Cross-loadings (Table 4-7). The

square roots of the AVEs in Table 6 are greater than the constructs’ correlation with others, and all HTMT values

are below the 0.85 requirement. These results provide robust evidence of reliability measurement and validate

the quality of the questionnaire items developed for this study.

Table 5: HTMT

FSS

ISM

PILP

FSS

0.647

ISM

0.692

0.760

0.030

0.429

0.382

PILP

0.831

0.751

0.841

0.305

Source: Author’s Computation (2025)

All Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT) ratios of correlation values are below the conservative threshold of 0.85. This

confirms that the constructs in the model are empirically distinct from one another, demonstrating strong

discriminant validity.

Table 6: Fornell-Larcker Criterion

FSS

ISM

PILP

0.885

FSS

0.551

0.871

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ISM

0.597

0.646

0.883

0.017

0.385

0.348

0.917

PILP

0.729

0.649

0.735

0.281

0.902

Source: Author’s Computation (2025)

As shown in Table 6 above, the assessment of discriminant validity is also employed by comparing the square

roots of the AVE to the inner-construct correlation (off-diagonal). For every construct, the square root of the AVE

values is greater than their correlations with other constructs. This also satisfies the Fornell-Larcker Criterion,

providing additional evidence of strong discriminant validity.

Table 7: Cross-Loadings

FSS

ISM

PILP

AQ1

0.872

0.467

0.511

0.005

0.585

AQ2

0.898

0.485

0.572

0.013

0.674

AQ3

0.886

0.511

0.499

0.026

0.671

FSS1

0.483

0.867

0.545

0.341

0.562

FSS2

0.487

0.885

0.569

0.317

0.560

FSS3

0.471

0.861

0.574

0.348

0.573

ISM1

0.506

0.559

0.876

0.309

0.608

ISM2

0.529

0.593

0.893

0.328

0.676

ISM3

0.547

0.560

0.880

0.284

0.662

LP1

0.005

0.363

0.282

0.917

0.262

LP2

0.025

0.384

0.368

0.932

0.284

LP3

0.037

0.339

0.338

0.916

0.265

LP4

0.005

0.323

0.319

0.914

0.227

LP5

0.001

0.351

0.280

0.906

0.246

PILP1

0.620

0.606

0.640

0.268

0.906

PILP2

0.666

0.565

0.650

0.239

0.900

PILP3

0.686

0.585

0.698

0.253

0.902

Source: Author’s Computation (2025)

The Cross-loadings indicator shows how each construct's items load on its assigned versus other constructs. As

seen in Table 7, every indicator loads highest on its theoretically assigned construct (loadings in Bold). This

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pattern confirms that the indicators share more variance with their intended constructs than with others, further

validating the assigned items to constructs under discriminant validity.

Model Fit and Predictive Relevance

Apart from the factor loadings, we have also included model fit indices and assessed the model’s predictive

power. The model shows a satisfactory fit, with a Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) of 0.040

for the saturated model (Table 8), which is below the 0.08 threshold. Similarly, and interestingly, we assessed

the model’s predictive relevance using the PLS-predict procedure (Q

Predict). As shown in Table 9, the Q

predicted values for endogenous constructs are significantly greater than zero (e.g., PILP = 0.614), providing

strong evidence that the model possesses predictive power and is not overfitted to sample data (Shmueli et al.,

2019).

Table 8: Model Fit

Saturated model

Estimated model

SRMR

0.040

0.056

d_ULS

0.249

0.474

d_G

0.247

0.282

Chi-square

345.142

363.882

NFI

0.892

0.886

Source: Author’s Computation (2025)

This table reports model fit indices for the saturated and estimated models. The key indicator, the Standardized

Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR), is 0.040 for the saturated model, which is below the required 0.080 value.

This indicates a satisfactory fit between the proposed theoretical model and the observed data.

Table 9: Predictive relevance

Construct

∆R

Q² predict

RMSE

MAE

ISM

0.501

0.497

0.493

0.720

0.581

AQ -> ISM

0.167

0.275

0.263

0.188

0.910

0.735

AQ -> LP

0.151

PILP

0.619

0.616

0.614

0.629

0.497

AQ -> PILP

0.520

FSS -> ISM

0.289

FSS -> LP

0.083

FSS -> PILP

0.230

ISM -> LP

0.034

PILP -> LP

0.024

Source: Author’s Computation (2025)

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Table 9 summarizes the model’s explanatory power (R²), predictive relevance (Q

) and the relative effect size of

the paths (f

). The R

values indicate the model explains a vital proportion of variance in institutional support

and mentorship (ISM) (50.1%), participation in leadership program (PILP) (61.9%), and Leadership program

(LP) (27.5%). The Q

predictive values are all greater than zero, demonstrating the model’s predictive relevance.

The f

effect size shows that academic qualification (AQ) influence on PILP is strong (AQ PILP = 0.520), and

field of study and specialization (FSS) on ISM (0.289), etc.

Table 10 shows the univariate normality of the construct using Kurtosis and Skewness statistics. The absolute

values for kurtosis (<3) and skewness (<2) for all constructs are within acceptable limits for assuming normality.

This suggests that the data does not violate or deviate from a normal distribution, making it suitable for analysis.

Table 10: Normality Test

Kurtosis

Skewness

Number of observations used

0.343

0.135

232.000

FSS

2.078

0.639

232.000

ISM

0.572

0.507

232.000

-0.130

0.001

232.000

PILP

0.742

0.079

232.000

Source: Author’s Computation (2025)

The measurements in those tables above allow us to assert that the constructs were measured with high precision

and reliability. The methodology is strengthened and provides a solid foundation for interpreting the significant

and non-significant results. This affirms that, although the predictors are significantly associated with a

theoretically relevant finding in the realm of human capital formation, multicollinearity does not undermine the

integrity of the overall regression model.

Test of Hypotheses

H1: Improved leadership performance in The Gambia's education sector is associated with higher tertiary

education levels for women leaders.

Table 11: Correlations

Academic

Qualifications

Field of Study

and

Specialization

Institutional

Support and

Mentorship

Participation in

Leadership and

Capacity-

Building

Programs

Performance of

Women’s

Leadership

Academic

Pearson

Correlation

.908**

.918**

.930**

.894**

Sig. (2-tailed)

.000

232

Field of Study

Pearson

.908**

.924**

.890**

.971**

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Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)

.000

232

Institutional

Support Pearson

Correlation

.918**

.924**

.893**

.926**

Sig. (2-tailed)

.000

232

Participation in

Leadership

Pearson

Correlation

.930**

.890**

.893**

.884**

Sig. (2-tailed)

.000

232

Performance of

Women’s

Leadership

Pearson

Correlation

.894**

.971**

.926**

.884**

Sig. (2-tailed)

.000

232

**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Source: Author’s Computation (2025)

All variables show significant correlations with each other (Table 11), with all correlations above .88 (p < .01).

Values above .90, especially for variables such as field of specialization and leadership performance (r = .971),

suggest multicollinearity. We note these tendencies here and recommend a Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) test

for future studies.

H2: Level of academic qualification, field of study and specialization, access to institutional Support and

mentorship, and involvement in leadership and capacity-building programs significantly contribute to effective

leadership performance of women leaders in the Gambia's education sector.

Table 12: Model Summary

Model

R Square

Adjusted R-Square

Std. Error of the Estimate

.925a

.856

.854

.363

a. Predictors (Constant), Participation in Leadership and Capacity Building Programs, Institutional Support and

Mentorship, Academic Qualifications, Field of Study and Specialization

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Source: Author’s Computation (2025)

The model summary clearly shows that the variables explain 85.6% of the variance in women's leadership

performance, indicating an excellent fit.

Table 13: ANOVA[a]

Model

Sum of Squares

Mean Square

Sig.

1 Regression

178.505

44.626

338.365

.000b

Residual

29.939

227

.132

Total

208.444

231

a. Dependent Variable: Performance of Women’s Leadership

b. Predictors: (Constant), Participation in Leadership and Capacity-Building Programs, Institutional Support and

Mentorship, Academic Qualifications, Field of Study and Specialization

Source: Author’s Computation (2025)

Consequently, we concentrate our analysis on the aggregate explanatory capacity of the educational factors, as

posited by Human Capital Theory. However, we observed their profound interconnectedness in practice. The

regression coefficients, considering collinearity diagnostics, reveal that Academic Qualifications, Field of Study

and Specialization, and Institutional Support and Mentorship are statistically significant predictors (p < .001).

The variable Participation in Leadership and Capacity Building Programs was not significant (p = .802). The

negative constant (B = -0.249) was likewise non-significant.

The ANOVA test (F (4,227) = 338.365, p < .001) supports that overall regression model significance is

established with combined variables playing a significant role in leadership performance.

Table 14: coefficients[a]

Model

Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients

Sig.

Std. Errors

Beta

(Constant)

-.249

.190

-1.309

.192

Academic Qualifications

.219

.058

.239

3.774

.000

Field of Study and Specialization

.395

.093

.418

4.266

.000

Institutional Support and

Mentorship

.395

.076

.285

5.204

.000

Participation in Leadership and

Capacity-Building Programs

.025

.099

.025

.251

.802

a. Dependent Variable: Performance of Women’s Leadership

Source: Author’s Computation (2025)

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The regression coefficients indicate that academic qualifications, area of specialization, and institutional

support/mentorship are significant predictors (p < .001). Furthermore, involvement in leadership programs was

non-significant (p = .802), suggesting that without structural and education-related support, training participation

does not have any measurable effect. The negative constant (B = -0.249) is non-significant. The outcome

highlights relevance to academic qualifications, the type of education studied, and the role played by support

structures versus participation in programs.

Results: Qualitative Perspective

Table 15: Background Information of Interviewees

Interviewee

Place of Work

Position

Code

Date of

Interview

Albion LBS

Head Teacher

INT01

13th July 2025

Campama LBS

Deputy Head Teacher

INT02

14th July 2025

Bakau New Town LBS

Senior Mistress

INT03

15th July 2025

GOVI LBS

Head Teacher

INT04

18th July 2025

Methodist Special LBS

Senior Teacher

INT05

19th July 2025

St. John’s LBS

Deputy Head Teacher

INT06

20th July 2025

Brikama UBS

Principal

INT07

21st July 2025

Mansa Colley Bojang, UBS

Vice Principal

INT08

22nd July 2025

Julangel UBS

Head of Department

INT09

25th July 2025

Gambia SSS

Principal

INT10

26th July 2025

Muslim SSS

Vice Principal

INT11

27th July 2025

St. Peter’s SSS

Head of Department

INT12

28th July 2025

Nusrat SSS

Vice-Principal

INT13

29th July 2025

University of The Gambia

Admission Officer

INT14

2nd

2025

August

University

Gambia

Education,

The

Senior Lecturer/Program

Director

INT15

3rd

2025

August

USET

Department Head

INT16

4th August 2025

Civil Service University

Deputy Registrar

INT17

5th August 2025

MoBSE HQ (Banjul)

Director of Schools

INT18

Source: Author’s Computation (2025)

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Analysis of Interview Transcripts

According to the findings gathered for Objective One, women leaders understand how transformative it is to

have academic qualifications when exercising their leadership styles. For instance, one of the head teachers

(INT01, 2025) confirmed, "My bachelor's in education qualification has empowered me to take informed

decisions, especially in matters concerning employees' performance and conflict resolutions. Similarly, another

principal (INT07, 2025) confirmed that her master's qualification had enhanced her analytical skills for

systematic leadership. Finally, one of the Directors of Schools (INT18, 2025) reaffirmed her master's

qualification by asserting that it has extended her strategic thinking and enhanced her position when

reconsidering national policies.” It is clear that high levels of academic achievement have a significant effect on

boosting confidence levels, inclusivity, and strategic thinking for women.

The study’s participants have also pointed out that higher education influences overall performance for female

leaders. According to a Deputy Head Teacher (INT02, 2025), “It provides women leaders credibility with staff

and with parents, making it easy to enact policies and command respect.” Principal (INT10, 2025) reported that

"tertiary education is a game-changer that can enable women to compete for jobs that have been exclusively

reserved for males. A head teacher (INT04, 2025) stated that "women leaders with tertiary education can perform

well in special needs education because these women incorporate modern strategies that they have recently

acquired from their training experiences.” All agree that tertiary education improves women's confidence and

their leadership potential much more than their capacity for change in the Gambia's education reform. Therefore,

we must acknowledge the close relationship between Objective One, the performance of tertiary education, and

women's leadership.

The interviewees cited tertiary education as the source of skills and attributes for leadership. These skills include

communication skills and conflict resolution skills. According to a head teacher (INT01, 2025), “From my

tertiary education, I have acquired skills in communication and conflict resolution. These skills have helped me

to manage any conflict between my staff.” A senior mistress (INT03, 2025) cited “time management" and

“leadership ethics," while another principal (INT07, 2025) cited “strategic planning and delegation skills.”

Finally, a vice-principal (INT11, 2025) cited strategic planning and emotional intelligence to create harmony.

These statements demonstrate that tertiary education can equip individuals with skills necessary to become

qualified leaders. Research revealed that the field of studies/specialization significantly influences leadership

practices. A head teacher (INT04, 2025) highlighted that her area of specialization in special education inspired

her to focus on inclusive practices and modify them to suit students with disabilities. A principal (INT07, 2025)

mentioned her experience in Social Studies as inspiring her community-focused leadership style. A Head of

Department (INT12, 2025) indicated her area of specialization in Science Education as developing her analytical

mind to support data-informed decisions. A Director of Schools (INT18, 2025) mentioned that her area of

specialization in Education Policy allowed her to think beyond the organization. As such, the role of

specialization is to equip women leaders with specialized knowledge to ensure that their leadership practices

meet the demands of their organization and the larger community. Thus, Objective Two validates the

enhancement of specialized knowledge through tertiary education to empower women leaders with innovative

leadership skills.

From objective three, it is apparent that women leaders face a number of institutional and sociocultural factors.

A Head Teacher (INT01, 2025) stated that “there is resistance from some male colleagues who feel threatened

because women have taken up leadership roles.” "Our culture's beliefs about women's roles constrain the

seriousness with which I take my decisions," stated a Deputy Head Teacher (INT02, 2025). A principal (INT07,

2025) stated that “parents within our community question a woman's leadership role for such a large institution.”

A principal (INT10, 2025) stated that “political influence within our leadership challenges our professional

knowledge gained through our training and education.” The points mentioned suggest that specific gender biases

have hindered women leaders in their roles, despite their knowledge.

Participants have also identified a lack of support from institutional and professional structures. One Head

Teacher (INT01, 2025) complained that there is “a lack of structured mentorship programs for women leaders.”

One Deputy Head Teacher (INT06, 2025) commented that “Leadership workshops are not regular; therefore, I

lack proper training to resolve arising matters.” One Principal (INT10, 2025) complained that “Institutional

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funds for capacity development are not adequate.” One senior lecturer (INT15, 2025) identified the need to

“enhance mentorship programs within the institution to support women leaders in ascending to the topmost

leadership positions.” Evidently, without proper mentorship programs and continuous support and training,

women will not be able to take full advantage of their tertiary education.

As such, Objective Three indicates that although critical skills are developed in women leaders through

postsecondary education, there are sociocultural impediments and deficiencies that hamper their efforts to take

advantage of such skills. This can mitigate the effectiveness of women's education as a determinant of their

performance in their roles.

From the assessment done on the three objectives, it is evident that tertiary education makes a significant

contribution to the performance of women in leadership capacities with regard to enhancing their decision-

making abilities and confidence levels. This is because it ensures that women gain both generic and specific

skills necessary for performance. However, there are limitations to using tertiary education in leadership.

Triangulation of Research Findings: A Quantitative and Qualitative Approach

The outcome for quantitative correlation revealed forceful and positive correlations between higher education

indicators and the performance of female leaders (p < 0.01). Worth mentioning here is that "field of

study/specialization" emerged as the foremost predictor (r = 0.971) to highlight the significant role of academic

background.

These qualitative findings complement such evidence by clearly pinpointing benefits about higher education on

matters concerning leadership confidence and strategic thinking. Their role regarding the application of evidence

and systematic leadership practices (INT01, INT07, INT18) by women holding Bachelor's and Master's degrees

was evident. They believe education is a “game changer” (INT10) with regard to authority and inclusivity.

Triangulating the findings on both questions, tertiary education achievement plays a significant role in increasing

effectiveness in leadership through skills as well as overall strategic thinking. From a quantitative standpoint,

the results of the multiple regression test indicated that women's academic background, discipline, and

institutional support played a crucial role in their effectiveness as leaders (p < 0.001). From the results, it can be

concluded that 85.6% of the variance in performance could be explained (R² = 0.856) because of the explanatory

power of education-related variables. It can also be concluded that engagement with leadership training activities

is not statistically significant (p = 0.802) because training does not necessarily have a direct effect on improved

performance.

Furthermore, qualitative results indicated that tertiary education provides women with critical skills such as

communication, conflict resolution, and strategic planning. Additionally, specialization played a crucial role:

leaders with experience in special education applied inclusive strategies (INT04), while those with a background

in policy demonstrated overall systemic leadership qualities (INT18). Consequently, the triangulation of the

findings reveals that academic and specialized skills predominantly reflect the influence of tertiary education on

leadership. The insignificant statistical impact of training workshops aligns with qualitative data indicating that

these workshops are often substandard or erratic.

The multiple regression analysis revealed that training and mentorship gaps can negatively influence the results,

even though education and support played a crucial role in the outcome of leadership performance.

Likewise, qualitative evidence highlighted sociocultural and institutional impediments. Challenges reported

included resistance to their ascendancy from male colleagues (INT01), lack of acknowledgment because of

sociocultural constructions (INT02 & INT07), and politically driven impediments (INT10). Others cited the

absence of mentorship programs and traineeship support (INT01 & INT10 & INT06 & INT15) among women.

Therefore, based on the triangulation of both perspectives, there is a paradoxical reality where, although skills

and knowledge are gained by women through post-secondary education, the underlying institutional

environment and gender prejudices hinder their capacity to fully utilize these advantages. This indicates that

merely pursuing education is not enough; reforms and changes at the institutional and cultural levels are also

imperatively required.

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DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

This paper is concerned with exploring the effects that tertiary education has on women's leadership performance

in the education sector in Gambia. Three objectives inform this paper. These objectives aim to investigate if

there is a relationship between tertiary education and women's performance, to identify the role played by tertiary

education in enhancing women's leadership performance, and to investigate challenges faced by women in

applying their knowledge to lead. These objectives form the subjects of discussion for the paper.

From Objective One, there existed a statistically significant relationship between women's tertiary education

achievements and their performance as leaders. Variables such as the area of specialization had the strongest

predictive power for the performance of women leaders. Other variables, such as academic qualification and

support, had a strong association. The results indicated that women leaders gained improved skills in evidence-

based decision-making and strategic vision through their tertiary education.

The findings support Human Capital Theory because it assumes that investments in education raise individual

productivity and performance. The findings agree with Gillard & Okonjo-Iweala (2022) because they stated that

high-level education is essential for women leaders, as it gives them analytical skills to question conventions

related to gender. Furthermore, the findings agree with Arora (2022) & Bennouri et al. (2022) because they

discussed that women with high levels of education can do more for improved performance in leadership.

Furthermore, it is applicable to the policy guideline for the Gambia (MoBSE & MoHERST, 2016) because it

recognizes education as the catalyst for realizing gender equity in leadership. However, Andrew (2020) presents

a differing view by indicating that in the Gambian education sector, it is specifically tertiary education that

directly contributes to women's success in leadership. Thus, this finding supports the importance of obtaining

tertiary education in enhancing women's leadership opportunities.

From Objective Two, it is clear that post-secondary education encourages successful leadership because it equips

women with essential skills such as communication skills, conflict resolution skills, time management skills, and

strategic planning skills. The quantitative findings showed that qualifications, specialization, and institutional

support were significant predictors, explaining 85.6% of the variance in performance. However, involvement in

leadership development programs did not have statistical significance, implying that training without continuity

likely yields insignificant results. These results are indicative of Social Role Theory, which assumes that

women's effectiveness in leadership positions is impacted by skills and abilities developed by education and

socialization.

The negligible effect identified for leadership training programs is one of the most intriguing outcomes of this

research, referred to as 'The Training Paradox.' Despite the widespread belief that training improves performance,

a thorough examination of the specific components and context sheds light on the issue. The questionnaire items

assessing this variable concentrated on participation in programs (e.g., "I have attended leadership workshops")

rather than on the quality, usefulness, or implementation of the training. Qualitative research corroborates this,

indicating that numerous existing programs were characterized as "irregular," "generic," "theoretical," and

deficient in follow-up support. This indicates that the quality of the training, rather than the notion of training

itself, is the concern. Therefore, the null result suggests a detachment between infrequent, inadequately

structured training and everyday leadership challenges. In the absence of means for practical implementation,

they will not produce quantifiable enhancements in performance. This underscores a vital difference between

mere participation in training and the attainment of relevant, high-quality leadership skills.

Likewise, these recommendations reflect the emphasis by other authors such as Edwards et al. (2020) and Gillard

and Okonjo-Iweala (2022) on mentorship and skill-building for improving women’s leadership effect. The non-

significant impact found for leadership training programs is one of the most intriguing findings arising from this

research and is termed here 'The Training Paradox.' It is generally presumed that training will have a positive

effect on performance, but many programs on offer for women leaders in this country could be irregular in

nature, structured in a way that is poorly considered, or even tokenistic. Evidence has arisen that supports such

a supposition.

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This is consistent with research by Domingo et al. (2022), which found that women are inadequately equipped

through appropriate training programs for establishing long-lasting leadership skills. Likewise, Doe (2024) noted

that education workshops conducted for Gambian women in education are normally short and don’t involve skill

transfer. Thus, while tertiary education makes a significant contribution to leadership effectiveness, the minimal

effect of training highlights both strategic design and continual and relevant capacity-building activities.

Objective Three revealed that while higher education positively impacts women leaders, it also presents inherent

issues for them. Gender biases, cultural stereotyping, political interference, and a lack of institutional support

contribute to these issues. The quantitative result indicated that a lack of mentorship and training is a constraint,

and this was demonstrated by the cultural resistance expressed by male superiors and a lack of funding.

These findings resonate strongly with Eagly and Koenig’s (2021) contention that stereotypes and social roles

feed a vicious cycle that corrodes women’s authority in leadership. They are in line with Abalkhail (2017) and

Evans and Maley (2021), who have cited cultural and organizational issues that women leaders have experienced

elsewhere.

Acker's (1990) Gendered Organizations theory, which asserts that organizational structures and norms are

inherently gendered, also explains these findings. They usually privilege masculine traits while devaluing

women’s competencies. In terms of Gambian society, these unofficial norms and biases can potentially counter

the human capital that women have accumulated through education by supporting patriarchal decision-making

structures.

Additionally, the issues identified align with the experiences of women in higher education as discussed by

Domingo et al. (2022), while Henningsen et al. (2022) found that women frequently encounter challenges related

to inherent bias, limited mentoring opportunities, and self-selection. Similarly, Doe (2024) discovered that

cultural practices, despite their qualifications, challenge the authority of Gambian women working in education

environments.

We can confirm that tertiary education plays a pivotal role in enhancing the performance of women leaders in

The Gambia. However, inherent institution-wide challenges and cultural stereotypes impede this critical role.

Thus, institution-wide programs that promote gender sensitivity and cultural transformation should anchor

education policies.

Policy Implications

The findings clearly establish numerous policy recommendations for enhancing women's leadership. Firstly,

academic qualifications and specialization play a significant role in advancing leadership performance. Thus,

education policies should play an affirmative role in increasing women’s participation in higher education by

providing scholarships for postgraduate studies in educational leadership, management, and policy. Such

collaborations between MoBSE and MoHERST will help build links between higher education and leadership

positions.

Additionally, with institutionally based support and mentorship playing a significant role in enhancing leadership

effectiveness, it is recommended that gender-sensitive human resource practices incorporate practices such as

mentorship networks for leadership, fellowships for women in leadership positions, and leadership incubators.

The 'training paradox' is used to illustrate the importance of a rethink in organizational leadership training

approaches, shifting from traditional one-off training sessions to long-term PLCs for peer-centered learning,

reflection, and performance coaching.

Finally, in highlighting more specific issues related to socio-cultural and institutional impediments, it is

necessary to strengthen gender equity policies, embed dimensions of gender transformation in leadership

courses, and promote collaboration between society and unionized teachers. These approaches can collectively

help women turn their educational achievements into successful leadership. Thus, both SDG 5 and SDG 4 can

be achieved in The Gambia.

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CONCLUSION

It is clear in this study that tertiary education is a powerful transformative force with the ability to empower

women leaders. The findings indicate that qualifications, specialization, and support significantly and positively

impact the effectiveness of women leaders in their roles. This lends credence to the claim that tertiary education

enhances one's skills and knowledge, as well as one's strategic skills.

However, it is worth mentioning that this report has pointed out numerous challenges that have been evident.

These include inadequate training programs, irregular training opportunities, and sociocultural-related setbacks.

These hinder women's ability to use their education as qualifications for effective leadership. Therefore, while

education is known to be the bedrock for freedom and emancipation, it is necessary to change structures and

society.

From a theoretical perspective, this demonstrates the relevance of human capital theory, as it is clear that

investing in women's education has led to advantages in leadership roles. From a practical standpoint, it is crucial

to acknowledge the importance of implementing gender-sensitive policies.

Future research should focus on carrying out longitudinal or comparative analyses to determine how women's

leadership trends will develop over time and whether appropriate structures will be established for women. Such

data will be imperative for crafting strategies that will promote women's leadership in Gambia and Africa in

general.

DECLARATIONS

Conflict of Interest

All authors on this work declare that there is no conflict of interest. This work was done independently without

any personal, financial, or institutional influences that might have impacted the results.

Data Availability

The lead author can make data supporting the study's results available upon request. Information gathered

through interviews is not permitted for public distribution owing to agreements made with participants.

Funding Statement

No funding body has provided any specific financial grant or aid. Public, private, and non-profit organizations

provide no aid. We, the researchers, fund the research.

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