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Groundwater Resources in the Mekong Delta: Current Status,
Challenges, and Sustainable Approaches under Dual Impacts
Truong Thi Ngoc Chau1,2, Nguyen Dinh Giang Nam3, Huynh Vuong Thu Minh3, Le Nhu Y3,4, Nguyen
Vo Chau Ngan3*
1Department of Natural Resources and Environment of Can Tho city, Vietnam
2Master’s Student, Climate Change and Delta Management Program (K30 Cohort), Can Tho University
3College of Environment and Natural Resources - Can Tho University, Vietnam
4Graduate Institute of Applied Geology - National Central University, Taiwan
*Corresponding author
DOI: https://doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2025.1210000061
Received: 06 October 2025; Accepted: 12 October 2025; Published: 03 November 2025
ABSTRACT
This review synthesizes recent evidence on groundwater security in Vietnam’s Mekong Delta under the twin
pressures of climate change and sustained over-abstraction. Advancing prior work, we (i) integrate disparate
findings into an extraction–subsidence–salinization systems frame and (ii) align post-2015 scientific evidence
with the latest regulatory reforms to distill implementable pathways. Using a selective but transparent literature
strategy focused on peer-reviewed studies (2015–2025) indexed in Scopus/Web of Science and authoritative
governmental/international reports, we prioritized sources with explicit methods, georeferenced observations,
and reported uncertainties; grey literature without methodological disclosure was screened out. The Delta’s
multi-aquifer endowment is heavily stressed: recorded withdrawals from centralized wells are approximately 2.0
million m³ d⁻¹, groundwater heads decline by 0.3–0.5 m y⁻¹ across many localities, and land subsidence averages
about 1.07 cm y⁻¹ with urban hotspots exceeding these values; earlier and deeper saltwater intrusion further
jeopardizes domestic supply and agriculture. Water-quality risks—including widespread microbial
contamination and geogenic arsenic above WHO guidelines—compound exposure. While recent legal
instruments establish clearer mandates for restricted zones, licensing, and extraction charges, implementation is
hindered by fragmented monitoring networks, limited metering of household wells, and transition costs for small
users. We propose a four-pillar strategy: legally binding, risk-zoned extraction thresholds; phased substitution
by interprovincial surface-water conveyance; managed aquifer recharge (e.g., riverbank filtration) in suitable
formations; and digital metering coupled with economic instruments and integrated forecasting that co-simulates
extraction, subsidence, and salinity. The review also identifies critical evidence gaps—household abstraction
inventories, in-situ deformation–pumping linkages, and cost-effectiveness of recharge options—that should
anchor near-term research. Collectively, these measures are necessary to arrest the subsidence–salinity feedback
loop and restore groundwater resilience in the Mekong Delta.
Keywords: dual impacts, groundwater, land subsidence, saltwater intrusion, the Mekong Delta, water quality
BACKGROUND
The Vietnamese Mekong Delta (MD), one of the largest and most densely populated deltas in the world, plays
a strategic role in Vietnam’s food security and economic development. With its abundant agricultural potential,
the region contributes approximately 50% of the country’s rice output, 70% of its fruit production, and 90% of
its rice exports (NSO, 2024). However, the MD is currently facing a severe water resource crisis, particularly in
terms of groundwater, driven by the “dual impacts” of climate change and excessive human exploitation (Binh
& Tien, 2021). In fact, groundwater has been increasingly exploited not only for the purposes of irrigation and
industrial activities, but also for domestic use (Danh & Khai, 2015). This degradation not only threatens the
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livelihoods of millions of residents but also significantly undermines the region’s natural ecosystems and
infrastructure (MoNRE, 2021a).
This review paper aims to provide a systematic and in-depth overview of the current status of groundwater
resources in the MD. Drawing upon a synthesis of recent studies and updated data, the report analyzes the
region’s hydrogeological characteristics, assesses the extent of groundwater extraction and degradation, and
elucidates key consequences such as land subsidence and saltwater intrusion. It also examines existing policies
and management strategies, while distilling lessons from international experiences in other major deltas. Finally,
the study outlines future research directions and proposes strategic recommendations to ensure the sustainable
development of the MD.
Research questions (RQs):
- RQ1: What is the current status and quantifiable extent of groundwater resource degradation in the
Vietnamese MD under the dual pressures of sustained over-abstraction and climate change impacts?
Specifically, what are the current rates of groundwater head decline and centralized withdrawal volumes?
- RQ2: How can the disparate findings on groundwater stress be integrated into a coherent extraction–
subsidence–salinization systems framework?
- RQ3: What are the key elements of the latest Vietnamese regulatory reforms aimed at groundwater
governance? Furthermore, what are the primary implementation constraints—both technical and socio-
economic—that hinder the effectiveness of these legal instruments?
- RQ4: Based on the synthesis of scientific evidence and policy analysis, what is a distilled and implementable
four-pillar strategy necessary to arrest the subsidence–salinity feedback loop and restore groundwater
resilience in the MD?
METHODOLOGY
Study design and scope
This review synthesizes post-2015 evidence on groundwater use, land subsidence, and salinization in the MD,
with selective inclusion of pre-2015 and grey-literature sources where they are necessary to establish
hydrogeologic baselines or regulatory context. The primary horizon is 1 January 2015 to 30 September 2025.
Data sources and search strategy
We queried multidisciplinary and domain databases (Scopus, Web of Science Core Collection, Google
Scholar—first 200 hits per query for recall), plus institutional repositories (Vietnamese ministries and river-basin
authorities). Search strings combined controlled terms and free text around four concept blocks:
- Aquifer/groundwater: “groundwater” OR “aquifer*” OR “pumping” OR “abstraction”
- Impacts: “subsidence” OR “land subsidence” OR “salin* intru*” OR “saltwater intrusion”
- Geography: “Mekong Delta” OR “Đồng bằng sông Cửu Long” OR province names (e.g., “Cà Mau”, “Sóc
Trăng”, “An Giang”, “Đồng Tháp”)
- Time filter: 2015–2025 (removed when searching for baseline geology or pre-policy history)
Eligibility criteria
Inclusion
- Empirical or modeling studies on the MD that report: (i) groundwater levels/abstraction, (ii) land subsidence,
and/or (iii) salinity fronts or chloride/EC metrics.
- Policy and regulatory documents with direct implications for groundwater extraction or coastal salinity
barriers (national laws, ministerial circulars, basin-level plans).
- Pre-2015 studies only when they provide baseline hydrogeology (stratigraphy, aquifer properties), or
document foundational field methods reused in later work.
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Exclusion
- Non-MD geographies; purely conceptual pieces without empirical anchors.
- Duplicated analyses (conference paper superseded by journal article—retain the most complete/peer-
reviewed version).
- Grey literature lacking minimal methodological transparency.
Screening and selection workflow
We implemented a three-stage screening modeled on PRISMA:
- De-duplication across databases and repositories.
- Title/abstract screening by two reviewers; disagreements resolved by consensus.
- Full-text assessment for eligibility and data availability (groundwater/ subsidence/ salinity metrics, methods,
spatial/temporal coverage).
A total of 177 records were identified (60 from search queries + 117 from citation chaining), in which 51 studies
included; 126 excluded.
Data extraction and standardization
For each included item we extracted: study type; spatial unit (province/basin/point); period; data sources (wells,
interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR), gauges, modeling); key metrics (e.g., abstraction in m³ d⁻¹,
subsidence in cm y⁻¹, salinity as g L⁻¹); methods (e.g., InSAR processing chain, groundwater model specs); and
uncertainty statements.
To ensure comparability, units were standardized to SI conventions: m³ d⁻¹ (abstraction), cm y⁻¹ (subsidence),
and g L⁻¹ or practical salinity units for salinity. Decimal points use “.” and thousands of separators are omitted
(e.g., 2.0 million m³ d⁻¹). Where studies reported ranges, we captured min/median/max. When necessary, we
converted legacy units (e.g., ppm to g L⁻¹) using stated or standard factors and documented all conversions in a
data dictionary.
Quality appraisal and evidence weighting
Peer-reviewed studies were assessed with a simplified critical-appraisal checklist (study design clarity, data
provenance, method transparency, uncertainty handling, and external validity). Grey-literature (government/
agency reports, technical notes) was appraised using an adapted AACODS framework (Authority, Accuracy,
Coverage, Objectivity, Date, Significance). Minimum thresholds:
- Identifiable authorship/institutional authority.
- Traceable data or methods (e.g., well network description, InSAR scenes).
- Publication date or clearly stated data period.
Each source received a quality class (High/Moderate/Low) and a weight (1.0/0.5/0.2) used in narrative synthesis
and, where feasible, in weighted summary statistics. Pre-2015 items were only retained if they met one of the
justifications in §2.3 and passed quality screening; they were flagged as “baseline evidence” and never used
alone to infer post-2015 trends without a post-2015 corroborant.
We conducted sensitivity analyses by (a) excluding Low-quality and pre-2015 items, and (b) using equal weights
versus quality weights to test robustness of pooled ranges (e.g., abstraction or subsidence bands).
Synthesis approach
We performed a convergent narrative synthesis structured by the extraction–subsidence–salinization system.
Quantitative findings were summarized as pooled ranges/medians by province or sub-basin (with interquartile
range (IQRs) where available) and mapped to policy timelines. Where two or more independent data sources
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overlapped (e.g., InSAR-derived subsidence and global navigation satellite system (GNSS)), we triangulated
and highlighted agreements or discrepancies, with hypothesized drivers (e.g., lithologic variability, seasonal
pumping).
Bias, limitations, and mitigation
Risk of publication bias (English/Vietnamese language; paywalled journals) and selective reporting in grey
literature were mitigated by (i) dual-reviewer screening, (ii) explicit quality weighting, (iii) unit standardization
and transparent conversion logs, and (iv) sensitivity tests excluding lower-quality and pre-2015 items.
Remaining limitations include heterogeneous spatial granularity and uneven monitoring coverage across
provinces.
Hydrogeological Characteristics and Groundwater Potential
Hydrological features
The hydrogeological system of the MD is shaped by three prominent factors: freshwater flows and seasonal
flooding during the rainy season, saltwater intrusion during the dry season in coastal areas, and the presence of
acid sulfate water in alum-affected soils (VNMC, 2025). These elements contribute to a complex and distinctly
stratified ecosystem. Based on these characteristics, the MD is divided into three sub-regions: the upper delta
(adapted to flooding), the middle delta (focused on freshwater supply and flood control), and the coastal zone
(adapted to saline and brackish water conditions) (CENRC, 2022). Socio-economic development and resource
management in each sub-region must adhere to the principle of “living in harmony with nature” to ensure
sustainability.
From a hydrogeological perspective, the MD possesses the largest groundwater-bearing system in Vietnam,
comprising seven major aquifers within porous sediments and one fractured bedrock aquifer. These aquifers are
distributed across various depths, ranging from several tens of meters to as deep as 500–600 m (DWRPIS, 2014).
The principal aquifers include (Fig. 1):
- Pleistocene aquifers: These consist of the Upper Pleistocene (qp3), Middle–Upper Pleistocene (qp2-3), and
Lower Pleistocene (qp1) layers. They are widely distributed throughout the region. The qp3 aquifer lies at
depths of 18.0–35.8 m and can reach up to 60 m. The qp1 aquifer is separated from qp2-3 by a clay and silt
layer averaging 5–10 m in thickness (DWRPIS, 2014). Notably, the qp2-3 aquifer is the most heavily exploited
in Can Tho city (Le, 2025)—the central and biggest city in the MD.
- Pliocene aquifers: These include the Upper Pliocene (n2.2) and Lower Pliocene (n2.1) layers. Located at
greater depths, they are found between 167.5–280.8 m and are separated by a relatively thick clay-silt layer
averaging around 35 m (DWRPIS, 2014). These aquifers exhibit moderate to high water-bearing potential
(DWRPIS, 2014).
Figure 1. Structure of major aquifers
Groundwater potential and exploitable reserves
The MD possesses abundant potential reserves of freshwater groundwater, estimated at approximately 22.5
million m³ d⁻¹, with a region-wide safe yield of 4.5 million m³ d⁻¹ (DWRPIS, 2014). However, in-depth studies
have revealed a concerning disparity between theoretical potential and sustainable exploitation. According to a
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recent assessment, the total volume of freshwater groundwater in the MD is estimated at 867 billion cubic
meters—a substantial figure that is currently subject to severe overextraction (Gunnink et al, 2021).
A detailed study of the Middle Pliocene aquifer indicates that its total exploitable potential for fresh water is
4,398,655 m³ d⁻¹, while the sustainable (safe) yield is only 879,731 m³ d⁻¹ (DWRPIS, 2014). Notably, the most
recent calculations show that the remaining safe yield of this aquifer has declined to just 402,372 m³ d⁻¹—a
figure alarmingly low compared to its initial potential (Tu, 2017).
The significant disparity between the initial safe yield and the remaining exploitable safe yield indicates that
groundwater extraction has systematically exceeded sustainable thresholds over an extended period. This trend
raises an alarming concern: even the initially abundant resource assessments have become increasingly irrelevant
as extraction pressures push the aquifers toward depletion. Overexploitation beyond the natural recharge capacity
has rendered theoretical potential figures unrealistic under current conditions. For a more comprehensive
overview of groundwater potential and exploitable reserves, refer to Table 1 below.
Table 1. Groundwater reserves in the MD by aquifer layer
Aquifer storage capacity The MD Middle Pliocene aquifer
Potential exploitable yield (m³ d⁻¹) 22.500.000 4.398.655
Safe yield (m³ d⁻¹) 4.500.000 879.731
Remaining safe yield (m³ d⁻¹) Not available 402.372
Reference source DWRPIS (2014) Tu (2017)
Current Status of Groundwater Exploitation and Degradation
Exploitation trends
Dependence on groundwater resources in the MD has increased significantly in recent years, primarily due to
the severe deterioration of surface water quality caused by pollution from agricultural, industrial, and domestic
activities (CEVIWRPI, 2024). This situation has led to widespread and poorly regulated groundwater extraction
(Ha et al., 2020).
According to survey from the National Center for Water Resources Planning and Investigation, in 2020 the
region had approximately 9,650 centralized groundwater extraction wells, with a total discharge volume of
around 1.97 million m³ d⁻¹ (Giang, 2025). This figure excludes over one million household-scale private wells,
which are estimated to contribute an additional 840,000 m³ d⁻¹ (Duy, 2021). Experts have also pointed out that
the actual volume of groundwater extraction may be substantially higher than reported figures (Khai, 2021). The
prevailing conditions of “easy access, low cost, and lax management” (Toan, 2021) have led to the indiscriminate
use of this vital resource. Although the officially licensed groundwater extraction capacity stands at 9.9 million
m³ d⁻¹ (Don, 2021), actual oversight remains limited. A detailed study estimates that total groundwater extraction
in the MD has exceeded 900 million cubic meters annually (Gunnink et al., 2021).
A particularly concerning issue is the inconsistency in reported data on total groundwater extraction across
different sources. The substantial discrepancies between estimates—such as 1.97 million m³ d⁻¹, 2.0 million m³
d⁻¹, and the licensed volume of 9.9 million m³ d⁻¹, as mentioned above—highlight the fact that the current
monitoring and statistical systems remain fragmented and insufficiently comprehensive. The lack of accurate
data, especially from unregulated household-scale wells, has created a significant gap in policy formulation and
in evaluating the effectiveness of management interventions, rendering decision-making scientifically
underinformed.
One of the most evident consequences of overextraction is the marked decline in groundwater levels. In several
aquifers, water tables have dropped considerably (Don, 2021), with average rates ranging from 0.3 to 0.5 m y⁻¹
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in many localities such as Can Tho city, Long An, Vinh Long, and Ca Mau province (DWRPIS, 2014); the rate
is even more severe reaching up to 0.92 m y⁻¹ in Lai Vung town of Dong Thap province. This trend indicates
that groundwater resources are being depleted at a rate that far exceeds their natural recharge capacity (Fig. 2).
Figure 2. Drivers of the groundwater crisis
Groundwater pollution status
In addition to declining reserves, groundwater quality in the MD is increasingly threatened by complex pollution
issues. Contaminants from surface water—polluted by agricultural runoff, industrial effluents (particularly from
small-scale industrial activities in Dong Thap), and domestic wastewater—have infiltrated directly into aquifer
systems (Giao et al., 2022; Minh et al., 2016; Ty et al., 2023). Unregulated groundwater extraction further
facilitates the deep penetration of pollutants, exacerbating water quality degradation (Minh et al., 2015; Ty et
al., 2021).
Studies have identified various types of contaminants (see Table 2):
- Coliform: Over 80% of water samples surveyed in An Giang, Dong Thap, and Can Tho showed severe
coliform contamination; high bacterial densities are likely linked to leakage from fecal sources such as
latrines, wastewater pipelines, livestock waste, or burial pits for diseased animals (Giao et al., 2022; Thu,
2023; Ty et al., 2023).
- Heavy metals and other pollutants: A comprehensive review reported ammonium contamination in Bac Lieu,
and nitrate and chloride in Soc Trang (Giao et al., 2022; Ty et al., 2023). In some areas, groundwater is also
contaminated with iron (Fe) and exhibits excessive hardness, although parameters such as pH, nitrate,
mercury (Hg), and lead (Pb) generally remain within acceptable limits (Giao et al., 2022; Ty et al., 2023).
- Arsenic: Arsenic pollution is geogenic in origin, resulting from naturally occurring anoxic conditions within
aquifer layers (Nguyet et al., 2025), raises major concerns for community health in Dong Thap and An Giang
provinces as over 70% of sampled tube-wells had arsenic concentrations exceeding the value of 500 g L⁻¹
(Oanh & Lap, 2016). Although WHO has lowered the safe limit for arsenic in drinking water from 50 µg L⁻¹
to 10 µg L⁻¹, many countries have yet to adopt this revised standard (Guo et al., 2024).
Table 2. Major contaminants and their sources in groundwater in the MD
Contaminant type Contamination level Source of pollution Typical affected areas
Coliforms Over 80% of samples
severely contaminated
Domestic wastewater, livestock
waste, fecal sources leakage
An Giang, Dong Thap,
Can Tho
Iron and water
hardness
Some areas exceed
national standards
Small-scale industrial activities,
polluted surface water
Dong Thap
Nitrate and Chloride No specific records Agricultural wastewater,
excessive fertilizer use
Soc Trang
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Arsenic No specific records Unknown An Giang
Ammonium No specific records Unknown Bac Lieu
(Source: Compiled from multiple sources)
Major Consequences of Groundwater Overexploitation
Land Subsidence
Land subsidence has been identified as one of the most severe consequences of excessive groundwater extraction
in the MD (Khai, 2021). This phenomenon is occurring at a rate significantly faster than sea level rise, thereby
increasing the risk of permanent inundation across the region (Thien, 2021).
- Subsidence rate: Monitoring data indicate that the average subsidence rate across the delta was 1.07 cm y⁻¹
during the period 2014–2019 (An, 2024). However, in urbanized areas, this rate can reach 2–4 cm y⁻¹, while
agricultural zones experience rates of 0.5–1.0 cm y⁻¹ (Neussner, 2019). Other studies have shown that
groundwater levels declined by an average of 2.85 m between 2001 and 2010, with a clear correlation
between groundwater depletion and land surface subsidence (Khai, 2021).
- Hotspots: Ca Mau Peninsula and Can Tho city have been identified as the fastest-subsiding areas (DWRPIS,
2014). In particular, Can Tho has recorded subsidence rates exceeding 5 cm y⁻¹ (MoNRE, 2021b).
- Impacts: Land subsidence causes extensive damage to infrastructure, leads to land loss, and heightens the
risk of flooding and erosion (Arcadis et al, 2021). During the dry season of 2023–2024, more than 2,000
subsidence incidents affecting dikes and transportation routes were reported, resulting in serious damage
(Chuong, 2024). Research has also shown that subsidence permanently reduces the storage capacity of
aquifers, rendering them incapable of full recovery even when recharge occurs (Ndahangwapo et al, 2022).
Saltwater Intrusion
Saltwater intrusion presents a dual challenge for the MD, driven not only by climate change and sea level rise
but also by groundwater extraction (Giang, 2025). The dynamics of groundwater systems are directly linked to
this phenomenon: extraction lowers water levels and reduces hydraulic pressure within aquifers, thereby
facilitating deeper penetration of seawater into the soil and aquifer layers (Giang, 2025).
- Current status: Saltwater intrusion is now occurring earlier and with greater intensity than the multi-year
average; the 4‰ salinity boundary on major rivers in Ca Mau has advanced inland by 60–70 km (Lam, 2025).
A recent study revealed that shallow aquifers are significantly affected by seasonal factors and land use
practices, while deeper aquifers are primarily influenced by ancient saline water and localized extraction
activities (Hoan et al., 2025). Historical drought-salinity crises, such as those during the dry seasons of 2015–
2016 and 2019–2020, caused severe damage to rice production and forced many households to migrate (Kien
& Tuan, 2023).
- Impacts: Saltwater intrusion has serious consequences for both livelihoods and agricultural productivity.
During the 2024 dry season, nearly 74,000 households experienced shortages of domestic water, and
thousands of hectares of rice suffered yield losses or complete crop failure (An, 2024).
Land subsidence and saltwater intrusion are not isolated phenomena; rather, they are intricately interrelated,
forming a dangerous feedback loop of degradation. Excessive groundwater extraction leads to land subsidence,
lowering the elevation of the entire delta region (Thien, 2021). This, in turn, makes the MD increasingly
vulnerable to sea level rise and saltwater intrusion. Conversely, as surface water becomes scarce due to
salinization, communities intensify groundwater extraction, further accelerating subsidence (CEVIWRPI, 2024).
This vicious cycle exacerbates the groundwater crisis in the MD and underscores the urgent need for an
integrated management approach, rather than addressing each issue in isolation. For a quantitative perspective,
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refer to Table 3 below.
Table 3. Land subsidence rates and groundwater levels in the MD
Areas Rate of land
subsidence
Rate of groundwater level
decline
Study timeline Sources
The whole MD 1.07 cm y⁻¹ 0.3–0.5 m y⁻¹ Not specified DWRPIS (2014)
Urban areas 2.0–4.0 cm y⁻¹ Not specified 2014 - 2019 Neussner (2019)
Rural areas 0.5–1.0 cm y⁻¹ Not specified 2014 - 2019 Neussner (2019)
Can Tho city 5.0 cm y⁻¹ Correlation with land subsidence 2014 - 2019 Khai (2021)
Solutions and Policies for Groundwater Governance
Existing Legal and Policy Framework
Groundwater resource management in Vietnam, and particularly in the MD, is structured through a multi-tiered
system involving central and local authorities, with participation from various agencies. The primary legal
foundation is the Law on Water Resources No. 28/2023/QH15, passed by the National Assembly in 2023
(Official Gazette, 2023). Two of the most critical implementing documents are Decree No. 53/2024/ND-CP,
which details the enforcement of several provisions of the Water Resources Law, and Decree No. 54/2024/ND-
CP, which regulates groundwater drilling practices, declaration, registration, licensing, water resource services,
and the payment for water exploitation rights. Decree 53/2024/NĐ-CP elaborates on key aspects of the 2023
Law, including baseline groundwater investigations; delineation of prohibited and restricted groundwater
extraction zones; assessment of artificial recharge potential; development of water source scenarios under
normal, scarce, and severely scarce conditions to inform quota adjustments; and the establishment of a national
water resource information and database system (Prime Minister, 2024a). Meanwhile, Decree 54/2024/NĐ-CP
standardizes drilling practices and the declaration/registration/licensing process for households and introduces a
payment mechanism for exploitation rights with provisions for reduction or exemption in cases of forced
cutbacks or drought/salinity intrusion (Prime Minister, 2024b). It also clearly assigns the role of commune-level
People’s Committees in inventorying groundwater structures and updating the database. In addition, the National
Water Resources Planning (Prime Minister, 2022b) and its Implementation Plan (Prime Minister, 2024) set
interregional allocation ceilings; while the Mekong Delta Regional Plan (Prime Minister, 2022a) guides the
transition of water supply sources and interprovincial surface water infrastructure development, and the
integrated planning for the Mekong River Basin (Prime Minister, 2023) focus on gradually restoring
groundwater levels in areas experiencing excessive depletion
The groundwater governance apparatus in the MD is divided into three levels: intra-provincial, inter-provincial,
and regional. At the provincial level, the Departments of Agriculture and Environment play a central role in
overall management, licensing, resource protection, irrigation planning, rural water supply, and groundwater
extraction control. At the regional level, organizations such as the Mekong Delta Regional Coordination Council
assist the Prime Minister in directing regional linkages and sustainable development; and the Vietnam Mekong
River Commission coordinates interprovincial, intersectoral, and international activities to ensure water security.
Despite the existence of a well-defined and generally sound legal framework, the implementation of groundwater
policies faces numerous challenges. It is estimated that hundreds of thousands of groundwater structures exist in
rural areas; and millions of people in rural MD regions still lack access to stable surface water supplies (Tung &
Xuyen, 2020). Table 4 summarizes the feasibility of groundwater governance implementation through key
constraints: data availability, surface water infrastructure, and socio-economic drivers.
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Table 4. Readiness to implement groundwater management operations
Criteria Assessment Causes
Legal framework
and authority
Good Provisions regarding restricted zones, databases, scenarios, and licensing
are clear (Official Gazette, 2023, 2024a).
Data and
monitoring
Average Lack of meters/telemetry at wells; household well records are scattered;
the commune level is now responsible for counting and updating the
database (Official Gazette, 2024b).
Alternative
sources (surface
water)
Below
average
Transition to surface water requires interprovincial projects aligned with
regional planning and the National Water Resources Planning, involving
large investments and long timelines (Prime Minister, 2022a).
Local political
economy
Below
average
Households and small-scale facilities bear the cost of well sealing/
connection; without subsidies, compliance is likely to be low.
Interprovincial
governance
Average Water source scenarios are based on river basins, but licensing/restrictions
are imposed by provinces; a practical coordination mechanism is needed
(Official Gazette, 2024a).
Inspection and
violation
handling
Average Provisions for suspension, revocation, or reduction of water use rights
fees exist, but inspection forces and real-time data remain limited
(Official Gazette, 2024b).
To address these shortcomings, future implementation of groundwater management policies should focus on the
following solutions:
- Establishing “extraction thresholds” and legally binding zoning: In accordance with Decree No. 53/2024/
ND-CP, provinces and centrally governed cities must finalize maps of prohibited and restricted groundwater
zones, determine extraction thresholds by aquifer, and annually update water source scenarios. When water
conditions shift to “scarce” or “severely scarce,” extraction quotas must be tightened in line with the
published scenarios. Restricted zones 2 and 3 in urban areas and industrial parks with centralized water
supply should be publicly disclosed; new permits for wells of levels 3–5 should be suspended or scaled down,
and a schedule should be set for sealing household wells in coastal low-tide zones vulnerable to salinity
intrusion (Official Gazette, 2024a).
- Transitioning supply sources from groundwater to interprovincial surface water: Priority should be given to
investing in and connecting surface water conveyance projects from the Hau River and the Cai Lon–Cai Be
system to replace groundwater use in provinces such as Ca Mau, Bac Lieu, Soc Trang, and Kien Giang. This
aligns with regional planning principles and the adaptive spirit of Resolution 120 (Prime Minister, 2017).
Provinces must commit to a phased reduction, decreasing centralized groundwater supply by at least X%
annually, shifting toward raw water purchases and regional linkages. Precedents for groundwater reduction
in major urban areas already exist (Minh et al., 2015; Vang & Ty, 2017).
- Economic instruments and licensing: Payment for exploitation rights should follow the fee structure outlined
in Decree No. 54/2024/ND-CP, supplemented by local surcharges in restricted zones. Fee reductions should
apply to facilities that reuse or recycle ≥20% of water or switch to surface sources. Mandatory metering and
online data transmission must be enforced; non-compliance may result in suspension or revocation of
permits, depending on water source conditions and regulatory authority. Households in restricted zones must
declare their groundwater use and be subject to volume and duration limits (Official Gazette, 2024b).
- Demand management and livelihood models: Efficient irrigation practices, seasonal adjustments, and
restructuring of crop-livestock systems should be adopted in line with water source scenarios. Groundwater
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should not be used for industrial shrimp farming in areas sensitive to land subsidence and salinity. Mandatory
connection to centralized water supply is required where services are available; new internal wells must be
prohibited, and a roadmap for sealing old wells in urban and industrial zones should be implemented.
- Water equity and household support: The MD still has over one million small-scale household wells. To
encourage households to abandon these wells, connection subsidies, free smart meters, and exemption/
reduction packages for exploitation rights upon conversion must be provided (Giang, 2025).
Technical and Infrastructural Solutions
In addition to governance policies, technical solutions are being actively researched and implemented. One
promising approach is managed aquifer recharge (MAR), which involves the controlled replenishment of
groundwater (Mäkinen, 2024). Decree No. 53/2024/ND-CP authorizes the assessment of artificial recharge
potential; pilot projects have been initiated in provinces using infiltration ponds and corridors located at urban
fringes and freshwater transition zones. These systems utilize not only pre-treated floodwater or low-tide peak
flows to recharge safe aquifers, but also the rainfall is also considered an important recharge source for shallow
groundwater (Day et al., 2018). Accompanying these efforts are protective recharge belts that prohibit
wastewater discharge and new drilling activities
The Viet–MAR cooperation program between Vietnam and Finland (2018–2023) represents a significant
initiative to enhance sustainable groundwater management under climate change conditions (Truc & Thanh,
2023). The program successfully piloted techniques such as riverbank filtration and MAR experiments in
confined aquifers across selected localities. Several studies have also recommended reducing groundwater
extraction and expanding artificial recharge infrastructure, while prioritizing surface water utilization as a
substitute (Duong et al., 2017).
Traditional infrastructure solutions have also been proposed, including the construction of dikes, water
reservoirs, and salinity control canal systems (Giang, 2025). In parallel, the development of centralized water
supply systems is considered a key strategy to alleviate pressure on groundwater resources for domestic and
industrial use (CEVIWRPI, 2024).
Groundwater drilling practices are regulated under No. 54/2024/ND-CP, which stipulates that only licensed and
qualified entities may conduct drilling, rehabilitation, or sealing of wells. Well construction standards must
include sealed caps to prevent saline intrusion. Campaigns to seal abandoned wells—especially in coastal areas,
which serve as long-term gateways for salinity intrusion—are being organized (Giang, 2025).
Monitoring and Research Projects
The lack of data and monitoring remains a major obstacle (Khai, 2021) necessitating the prioritization of
groundwater research and observation initiatives. The Vietnam–the Netherlands cooperation project on
subsidence governance and groundwater management was piloted in four provinces (Can Tho city, and provinces
of Ben Tre, Soc Trang, and Kien Giang) during the 2020–2021 period to support policy development (Arcadis
et al, 2021). The Ministry of Agriculture and Environment has also proposed comprehensive investigation
programs and the establishment of a land subsidence monitoring network to improve data accuracy (Cuc, 2019).
Articles 78–80 of Decree No. 53/2024/ND-CP mandate the implementation of a groundwater monitoring
network covering water levels, salinity, and quality; synchronization of local data with the national database;
and the integration of satellite imagery to track subsidence and inform risk-based licensing decisions. Annual
water source scenarios must be published on provincial and interregional information portals, serving as a basis
for adjusting extraction quotas, water supply planning, and infrastructure operations.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Groundwater resources in the MD are undergoing severe degradation in both quantity and quality due to
excessive and uncontrolled exploitation. This deterioration has led to two urgent consequences: land subsidence
occurring at a rate significantly faster than sea level rise, and increasingly deep and early saltwater intrusion.
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These two phenomena are causally interlinked, forming a vicious cycle that exacerbates the regional water crisis.
Although Vietnam has introduced important policies, implementation remains challenging due to fragmented
data systems, overlapping institutional mandates, and policy design shortcomings.
Based on a comprehensive analysis, several strategic recommendations are proposed to address the resource
crisis in the MD:
- Conduct in-depth research on hydraulic mechanisms and aquifer interactions, including the dynamics
between groundwater and surface water, to develop comprehensive hydrogeological models (Schmidt,
2015).
- Pilot and evaluate the MAR solutions, assessing their cost-effectiveness, technical performance,
environmental impact, and socio-economic benefits to determine feasibility and scalability. MAR represents
a promising approach for restoring depleted aquifers. From these evaluations, geologically and economically
suitable locations in the MD should be identified for model replication.
- Develop integrated forecasting models linking groundwater extraction, land subsidence, and saltwater
intrusion, to generate future scenarios and support proactive, long-term policy planning (Schmidt, 2015). In
particular, machine learning models such as Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) or other algorithms can be
employed to predict trends in groundwater decline and subsidence risk, thereby enhancing resource
management effectiveness (Duong et al., 2017; Ty et al., 2018). These models should be trained using
historical data on rainfall, river levels, extraction rates, and geological parameters to improve predictive
accuracy.
- Establish a regional cooperation framework, recognizing that major aquifers in the MD are hydraulically
connected with Cambodia and Thailand. This framework should include the formation of joint technical
working groups, cross-border community consultations, transboundary monitoring networks, and real-time
data sharing. Such collaboration must be grounded in principles of transparency, equity, and sustainability,
serving as a prerequisite for water security and long-term regional development.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT:
This study was conducted within the framework of activities of the AGriCTU Research Group, a key research team at Can
Tho University, Viet Nam. The author sincerely acknowledges the seed-fund support provided by Can Tho University.
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